Potential of Fat Replacers To Develop Low/Or Reduced-Fat Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing Systems: An Updated Review

Reza      Abedi-Firoozjah; Hossein      Azadinejad; Asad      Hosseini; Arvin      Afrah; Khadije      Abdolmaleki
Abstract

Mayonnaise is one of the most popular seasonings and well-established sauces globally, which is considered a high-fat and high-calorie product due to its high oil content. However, excessive consumption of fat (especially saturated fatty acids) leads to an increased risk of various chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, COVID-19, and obesity. Therefore, the demand for low-fat, low-calorie food products is increasing. Fat replacers (FR) have recently been employed to decrease fat content while ensuring consumer acceptability. Production of low-fat mayonnaise without significant quality changes is challenging from an industrial point of view. In this review, the fat replacement approach in the low/or reduced-fat mayonnaise and salad dressing systems is conferred in various aspects, including functional, technological, and sensorial properties. The type and source of used FRs, their benefits and drawbacks, and their nutritional effects are also discussed. Due to the unique functional role of fat, the development of low-fat dressing products that meet consumer demands is more complex than those provided by FRs. Also, although fat and calories are effectively reduced, due to the lack of human intervention studies, future research should focus on the safety of these fat substitutes.
Keywords: Protein-and carbohydrate-based fat replacer, whole food matrices, obesity, mayonnaise, salad dressing, low-fat.
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Sanders TAB. Introduction: The role of fats in human diet. In: Sanders TAB, Ed. Functional dietary lipids.  Woodhead Publishing 2016; pp. 1-20.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6]

[2]
Lodish H, Berk A, Bretscher A, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Ploegh H, et al. Molecular cell biology and launchpad for molecular cell biology (1-Term Access). W. H. Freeman 2016.

[3]
Guisado-Vasco P, Valderas-Ortega S.  Carralón-González MM, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes among hospitalized adults with severe COVID-19 admitted to a tertiary medical center and receiving antiviral, antimalarials, glucocorticoids, or immunomodulation with tocilizumab or cyclosporine: A retrospective observational study (COQUIMA cohort). EClinic Med  2020; 28: 100591.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100591] [PMID:  33078138]

[4]
Norouzbeigi S, Yekta R, Vahid-Dastjerdi L, et al. Stability of SARS‐CoV‐2 as consequence of heating and microwave processing in meat products and bread. Food Sci Nutr  2021; 9(9): 5146-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2481] [PMID:  34518780]

[5]
Chen Y, She Y, Zhang R, Wang J, Zhang X, Gou X. Use of starch‐based fat replacers in foods as a strategy to reduce dietary intake of fat and risk of metabolic diseases. Food Sci Nutr  2020; 8(1): 16-22.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1303] [PMID:  31993128]

[6]
Schwab U, Reynolds AN, Sallinen T, Rivellese AA, Risérus U. Dietary fat intakes and cardiovascular disease risk in adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nutr  2021; 60(6): 3355-63.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02507-1] [PMID:  33611616]

[7]
Guo J, Cui L, Meng Z. Oleogels/emulsion gels as novel saturated fat replacers in meat products: A review. Food Hydrocoll  2023; 137: 108313.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108313]

[8]
Subroto E, Indiarto R, Djali M, Rosyida HD. Production and application of crosslinking-modified starch as fat replacer: A review. Int J Engin Trends Technol  2020; 68(12): 26-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V68I12P205]

[9]
Meyer NMT, Pohrt A, Wernicke C, et al. Improvement in visceral adipose tissue and ldl cholesterol by high pufa intake: 1-year results of the nutriact trial. Nutrients  2024; 16(7): 1057.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu16071057] [PMID:  38613089]

[10]
Yazar G, Rosell CM. Fat replacers in baked products: their impact on rheological properties and final product quality. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr  2023; 63(25): 7653-76.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2048353] [PMID:  35285734]

[11]
Bourouis I, Pang Z, Liu X. Recent advances on uses of protein and/or polysaccharide as fat replacers: Textural and tribological perspectives: A review. J Agricult Food Res  2023; 11: 100519.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100519]

[12]
Asyrul-Izhar AB, Bakar J, Sazili AQ, Meng GY, Ismail-Fitry MR. Incorporation of different physical forms of fat replacers in the production of low-fat/reduced-fat meat products: Which is more practical? Food Rev Int  2023; 39(9): 6387-419.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2022.2108439]

[13]
Zhao Y, Khalesi H, He J, Fang Y. Application of different hydrocolloids as fat replacer in low-fat dairy products: Ice cream, yogurt and cheese. Food Hydrocoll  2023; 138: 108493.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108493]

[14]
Syan V, Kaur J, Sharma K, et al. An overview on the types, applications and health implications of fat replacers. J Food Sci Technol  2024; 61(1): 27-38.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-022-05642-7] [PMID:  38192702]

[15]
Zeece M. Chapter Seven - Food additives Introduction to the Chemistry of Food.  Academic Press 2020; pp. 251-311.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809434-1.00007-4]

[16]
O’Sullivan MG. Nutritionally Optimised Low Fat Foods A Handbook for Sensory and Consumer-Driven New Product Development.  Woodhead Publishing 2017; pp. 177-96.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100352-7.00009-9]

[17]
Mirzanajafi-Zanjani M, Yousefi M, Ehsani A. Challenges and approaches for production of a healthy and functional mayonnaise sauce. Food Sci Nutr  2019; 7(8): 2471-84.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1132] [PMID:  31428335]

[18]
Zali A, Gholamzadeh S, Mohammadi G, et al. Baseline characteristics and associated factors of mortality in COVID-19 patients; an analysis of 16000 cases in Tehran, Iran. Arch Acad Emerg Med  2020; 8(1): e70.
 [PMID:  33134966]

[19]
Rosen ED, Spiegelman BM. What we talk about when we talk about fat. Cell  2014; 156(1-2): 20-44.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.12.012] [PMID:  24439368]

[20]
Nelson DL, Cox M. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Macmillan Learning 2021.

[21]
Rios RV. Pessanha MDF, Almeida PFd, Viana CL, Lannes SCdS. Application of fats in some food products. Food Sci Technol  2014; 2014: 3-15.

[22]
Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JHY, et al. Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease: A presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation  2017; 136(3): e1-e23.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510] [PMID:  28620111]

[23]
Vogtschmidt YD, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Imamura F, Givens DI, Lovegrove JA. Replacement of saturated fatty acids from meat by dairy sources in relation to incident cardiovascular disease: The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)- Norfolk study.  Am J Clin Nutr  2024; 2024: S0002-9165. (24)00397- 6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.04.007] [PMID:  38608753]

[24]
Ma Z, Boye JI. Advances in the design and production of reduced-fat and reduced-cholesterol salad dressing and mayonnaise: a review. Food Bioprocess Technol  2013; 6(3): 648-70.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-1000-9]

[25]
Ghorbani Gorji S, Smyth HE, Sharma M, Fitzgerald M. Lipid oxidation in mayonnaise and the role of natural antioxidants: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol  2016; 56: 88-102.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.002]

[26]
Depree JA, Savage GP. Physical and flavour stability of mayonnaise. Trends Food Sci Technol  2001; 12(5-6): 157-63.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(01)00079-6]

[27]
Askari M, Mostaghim T. Evaluation of using salep and chitosan hydrocolloid as stabilizers and fat replacer in physicochemical and rheological features of low-fat mayonnaise. J Food Biosci Technol  2019; 9(2): 63-72.

[28]
Guilmineau F, Kulozik U. Influence of a thermal treatment on the functionality of hen’s egg yolk in mayonnaise. J Food Eng  2007; 78(2): 648-54.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.11.002]

[29]
Tarimala S, Dai LL. Structure of microparticles in solid-stabilized emulsions. Langmuir  2004; 20(9): 3492-4.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la036129e] [PMID:  15875369]

[30]
Drozłowska E, Łopusiewicz Ł, Mężyńska M, Bartkowiak A. The effect of native and denaturated flaxseed meal extract on physiochemical properties of low fat mayonnaises. J Food Meas Charact  2020; 14(2): 1135-45.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11694-019-00363-6]

[31]
Dickinson E. Stabilising emulsion‐based colloidal structures with mixed food ingredients. J Sci Food Agric  2013; 93(4): 710-21.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6013] [PMID:  23280883]

[32]
Zhang H, Zhang F, Yuan R. Applications of natural polymer-based hydrogels in the food industry Hydrogels based on natural polymers.  Elsevier 2020; pp. 357-410.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816421-1.00015-X]

[33]
Su HP, Lien CP, Lee TA, Ho JH. Development of low‐fat mayonnaise containing polysaccharide gums as functional ingredients. J Sci Food Agric  2010; 90(5): 806-12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3888] [PMID:  20355116]

[34]
Yashini M, Sunil C, Sahana S, Hemanth S, Chidanand D, Rawson A. Protein-based fat replacers – A review of recent advances. Food Rev Int  2021; 37(2): 197-223.

[35]
Sumonsiri N, Panjun B, Naksuk S, Boonmawat S, Mukprasirt A, Phasuthan P, Eds. Effect of oatmeal as a fat replacer on physical properties and sensory acceptance of creamy salad dressing.  E3S Web Conf  2020; 141: 5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202014102006]

[36]
Park JJ, Olawuyi IF, Lee WY. Characteristics of low-fat mayonnaise using different modified arrowroot starches as fat replacer. Int J Biol Macromol  2020; 153: 215-23.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.331] [PMID:  32135256]

[37]
Yashini M, Sahana S, Hemanth SD, Sunil CK. Partially defatted tomato seed flour as a fat replacer: effect on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of millet-based cookies. J Food Sci Technol  2021; 58(12): 4530-41.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04936-y] [PMID:  34629517]

[38]
Ognean CF, Darie N, Ognean M. Fat replacers. J Agroaliment Processes and Technol  2006; 12(2): 433-42. [review]

[39]
Omayma E, Youssef M. Fat replacers and their applications in food products: A review. J Food Sci Technol  2007; 4(1): 29-44.

[40]
Román L, Martínez MM, Gómez M. Assessing of the potential of extruded flour paste as fat replacer in O/W emulsion: A rheological and microstructural study. Food Res Int  2015; 74: 72-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2015.04.035] [PMID:  28412005]

[41]
Agyei-Amponsah J, Macakova L, DeKock HL, Emmambux MN. Effect of substituting sunflower oil with starch‐based fat replacers on sensory profile, tribology, and rheology of reduced‐fat mayonnaise‐type emulsions. Stärke  2021; 73(3-4): 2000092.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/star.202000092]

[42]
Paglarini CS, Vidal VAS, Martini S, Cunha RL, Pollonio MAR. Protein-based hydrogelled emulsions and their application as fat replacers in meat products: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr  2022; 62(3): 640-55.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1825322] [PMID:  33000627]

[43]
Hosseini SA, Azarikia M, Borhani B, Gholami R. Maltodextrin as fat replacer in food products. Alborz Univer Med  2021; 10(2): 7-13.

[44]
Akoğlu A, Cakir I, Karahan AG, Cakmakci ML. Effects of bacterial cellulose as a fat replacer on some properties of fat-reduced mayonnaise. Rom Biotechnol Lett  2018; 23(3): 13674-80.

[45]
Maneerat N, Tangsuphoom N, Nitithamyong A. Effect of extraction condition on properties of pectin from banana peels and its function as fat replacer in salad cream. J Food Sci Technol  2017; 54(2): 386-97.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2475-6] [PMID:  28242938]

[46]
Marinescu G, Stoicescu A, Patrascu L. The preparation of mayonnaise containing spent brewer’s yeast β-glucan as a fat replacer. Rom Biotechnol Lett  2011; 16(2): 6017-25.

[47]
Ataie MJ, Shekarabi SPH, Jalili SH. Gelatin from bones of bighead carp as a fat replacer on physicochemical and sensory properties of low-fat mayonnaise. J Microbiol Biotechnol Food Sci  2021; 2021: 979-83.

[48]
Meng R, Wu Z, Xie QT, et al. Zein/carboxymethyl dextrin nanoparticles stabilized pickering emulsions as delivery vehicles: Effect of interfacial composition on lipid oxidation and in vitro digestion. Food Hydrocoll  2020; 108: 106020.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106020]

[49]
Zhang T, Guo J, Chen JF, Wang JM, Wan ZL, Yang XQ. Heat stability and rheological properties of concentrated soy protein/egg white protein composite microparticle dispersions. Food Hydrocoll  2020; 100: 105449.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105449]

[50]
Gao Y, Zhao Y, Yao Y, et al. Recent trends in design of healthier fat replacers: Type, replacement mechanism, sensory evaluation method and consumer acceptance. Food Chem  2024; 447: 138982.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138982] [PMID:  38489876]

[51]
Wang Y, Zheng H, Li Y, Li B, Chen Y. One step procedure for desalting salty egg white and preparing fat analogue and its application in mayonnaise. Food Hydrocoll  2015; 45: 317-26.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.11.007]

[52]
Guler-Akin MB, Avkan F, Akin MS. A novel functional reduced fat ice cream produced with pea protein isolate instead of milk powder. J Food Process Preserv  2021; 45(11): e15901.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.15901]

[53]
Tanger C, Schmidt F, Utz F, Kreissl J, Dawid C, Kulozik U. Pea protein microparticulation using extrusion cooking: Influence of extrusion parameters and drying on microparticle characteristics and sensory by application in a model milk dessert. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol  2021; 74: 102851.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102851]

[54]
Chen D, Campanella OH. Limited enzymatic hydrolysis induced pea protein gelation at low protein concentration with less heat requirement. Food Hydrocoll  2022; 128: 107547.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107547]

[55]
Akbari M, Eskandari MH, Davoudi Z. Application and functions of fat replacers in low-fat ice cream: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol  2019; 86: 34-40.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.02.036]

[56]
Heikal YAR, Hassan AA, Abou-Arab AA, Abu-Salem FM, Azab DESH. Nano formulated soy proteins as a fat replacer in low fat mayonnaise formula. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci  2023; 22(7): 469-79.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2023.04.006]

[57]
Kumar SS, Balasubramanian S, Biswas AK, Chatli MK, Devatkal SK, Sahoo J. Efficacy of soy protein isolate as a fat replacer on physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of low-fat paneer. J Food Sci Technol  2011; 48(4): 498-501.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13197-010-0193-z] [PMID:  23572778]

[58]
Nourmohammadi N, Austin L, Chen D. Protein-based fat replacers: a focus on fabrication methods and fat-mimic mechanisms. Foods  2023; 12(5): 957.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods12050957] [PMID:  36900473]

[59]
Liu K, Tian Y, Stieger M, van der Linden E, van de Velde F. Evidence for ball-bearing mechanism of microparticulated whey protein as fat replacer in liquid and semi-solid multi-component model foods. Food Hydrocoll  2016; 52: 403-14.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.07.016]

[60]
Sun C, Liu R, Liang B, Wu T, Sui W, Zhang M. Microparticulated whey protein-pectin complex: A texture-controllable gel for low-fat mayonnaise. Food Res Int  2018; 108: 151-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.01.036] [PMID:  29735044]

[61]
Kew B, Holmes M, Stieger M, Sarkar A. Review on fat replacement using protein-based microparticulated powders or microgels: A textural perspective. Trends Food Sci Technol  2020; 106: 457-68.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.032] [PMID:  33380775]

[62]
Isusi GI, Marburger J, Lohner N, van der Schaaf US. Texturing of soy yoghurt alternatives: pectin microgel particles serve as inactive fillers and weaken the soy protein gel structure. Gels  2023; 9(6): 473.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/gels9060473] [PMID:  37367143]

[63]
Tekin ZH, Karasu S. Cold‐pressed flaxseed oil by‐product as a new source of fat replacers in low‐fat salad dressing formulation: Steady, dynamic and 3‐ITT rheological properties. J Food Process Preserv  2020; 44(9): e14650.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14650]

[64]
Tekin-Cakmak ZH, Karasu S, Kayacan-Cakmakoglu S, Akman PK. Investigation of potential use of by‐products from cold‐press industry as natural fat replacers and functional ingredients in a low‐fat salad dressing. J Food Process Preserv  2021; 45(8): e15388.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.15388]

[65]
Roshandel Z, Zibaei R, Abdolmaleki K. Characteristics of reduced‐fat mayonnaise prepared by oleaster as a fat replacer and natural antioxidant. Food Sci Nutr  2023; 11(6): 3329-38.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3318] [PMID:  37324861]

[66]
Johary N, Fahimdanesh M, Garavand F. Effect of basil seed gum and tracaganth gum as fat replacers on physicochemical, antioxidant and sensory properties of low fat mayonnaise. Int J Eng Sci Invent  2015; 4: 51-7.

[67]
Mozafari H, Hojjatoleslamy M, Hosseini E. Zodo gum exudates from Rosaceae as a fat replacer in reduced-fat salad dressing. Int Food Res J  2019; 26(3): 1087-93.

[68]
Fernandes SS, Mellado MMS. Development of mayonnaise with substitution of oil or egg yolk by the addition of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) mucilage. J Food Sci  2018; 83(1): 74-83.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13984] [PMID:  29165817]

[69]
Ribes S. Peña N, Fuentes A, Talens P, Barat JM. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed mucilage as a fat replacer in yogurts: Effect on their nutritional, technological, and sensory properties. J Dairy Sci  2021; 104(3): 2822-33.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2020-19240] [PMID:  33358816]

[70]
Chiang JH, Ong DSM, Ng FSK, Hua XY, Tay WLW, Henry CJ. Application of chia (Salvia hispanica) mucilage as an ingredient replacer in foods. Trends Food Sci Technol  2021; 115: 105-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.039]

[71]
Nidhal HA, Evanuarini H, Thohari I. Characteristics of reduced fat mayonnaise using pumpkin flour (Cucurbita moschata) as fat replacer  E3S Web Conf   2022; 335: 7.

[72]
Martínez E, Pardo JE, Rabadán A, Álvarez-Ortí M. Effects of animal fat replacement by emulsified melon and pumpkin seed oils in deer burgers. Foods  2023; 12(6): 1279.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods12061279] [PMID:  36981205]

[73]
Öztürk T, Turhan S. Physicochemical properties of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) seed kernel flour and its utilization in beef meatballs as a fat replacer and functional ingredient. J Food Process Preserv  2020; 44(9): e14695.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14695]

[74]
Zhang R, Belwal T, Li L, Lin X, Xu Y, Luo Z. Recent advances in polysaccharides stabilized emulsions for encapsulation and delivery of bioactive food ingredients: A review. Carbohydr Polym  2020; 242: 116388.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116388] [PMID:  32564856]

[75]
Al-Aubadi IMK. Preparation of healthy mayonnaise by using plant and animal gums as oil replacer. Syst Rev Pharm  2021; 12(1): 1142-50.

[76]
Elsebaie EM, Mousa MM, Abulmeaty SA, et al. Application of gurma melon (Citrullus lantus var. colocynthoides) pulp-based gel fat replacer in mayonnaise. Foods  2022; 11(18): 2731.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11182731] [PMID:  36140859]

[77]
Carcelli A, Crisafulli G, Carini E, Vittadini E. Can a physically modified corn flour be used as fat replacer in a mayonnaise? Eur Food Res Technol  2020; 246(12): 2493-503.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00217-020-03592-y]

[78]
Akcicek A, Karasu S. Utilization of cold pressed chia seed oil waste in a low‐fat salad dressing as natural fat replacer. J Food Process Eng  2018; 41(5): e12694.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12694]

[79]
Kadian D, Kumar A, Badgujar PC, Sehrawat R. Effect of homogenization and microfluidization on physicochemical and rheological properties of mayonnaise. J Food Process Eng  2021; 44(4): e13661.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13661]

[80]
Pazhvand R, Khavarpour M. Rheological, physical and sensory properties of mayonnaise formulated with sesame oil. J Food Biosci Technol  2019; 9(1): 35-44.

[81]
Schädle CN, Bader-Mittermaier S, Sanahuja S. Characterization of reduced-fat mayonnaise and comparison of sensory perception, rheological, tribological, and textural analyses. Foods  2022; 11(6): 806.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11060806] [PMID:  35327229]

[82]
Ansari L, Ali TM, Hasnain A. Effect of chemical modifications on morphological and functional characteristics of water‐chestnut starches and their utilization as a fat‐replacer in low‐fat mayonnaise. Stärke  2017; 69(1-2): 1600041.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/star.201600041]

[83]
Werlang S, Bonfante C, Oro T, Biduski B, Bertolin TE, Gutkoski LC. Native and annealed oat starches as a fat replacer in mayonnaise. J Food Process Preserv  2021; 45(3): e15211.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.15211]

[84]
Heydari A, Razavi SMA. Evaluating high pressure-treated corn and waxy corn starches as novel fat replacers in model low-fat O/W emulsions: A physical and rheological study. Int J Biol Macromol  2021; 184: 393-404.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.052] [PMID:  34144064]

[85]
Weiss TJ. Food oils and their uses. Ellis Horwood Ltd. 1983.

[86]
Puligundla P, Cho Y, Lee Y. Physicochemical and sensory properties of reduced-fat mayonnaise formulations prepared with rice starch and starch-gum mixtures. Emir J Food Agric  2015; 27(6): 463-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2015.04.081]

[87]
Bajaj R, Singh N, Kaur A. Properties of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modified starches and their application in low fat mayonnaise. Int J Biol Macromol  2019; 131: 147-57.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.054] [PMID:  30857961]

[88]
Hijazi T, Karasu S, Tekin-Çakmak ZH, Bozkurt F. Extraction of natural gum from cold-pressed chia seed, flaxseed, and rocket seed oil by-product and application in low fat vegan mayonnaise. Foods  2022; 11(3): 363.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11030363] [PMID:  35159516]

[89]
León O, Soto D, López D, Muñoz-Bonilla A, Fernández-García M. Fat‐replacer properties of oxidized cassava starch using hydrogen peroxide/sodium bicarbonate redox system in mayonnaise formulation and its stability. Stärke  2019; 71(9-10): 1900112.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/star.201900112]

[90]
Grossklaus R. Fat replacers—requirements from a nutritional physiological point of view. Lipid/Fett 1996; 98(4): 136-41.

[91]
Replacers F. The Gale Encyclopedia of Diets: A Guide to Health and Nutrition  Available from: 
          https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/fat-replacers

[92]
Smittle RB. Microbiological safety of mayonnaise, salad dressings, and sauces produced in the United States: a review. J Food Prot  2000; 63(8): 1144-53.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-63.8.1144] [PMID:  10945595]

[93]
Subroto E. Monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols for fat-based food products: A review. Food Res  2020; 4(4): 932-43.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(4).398]

[94]
Sandrou DK, Arvanitoyannis IS. Low-fat/calorie foods: current state and perspectives. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr  2000; 40(5): 427-47.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408690091189211] [PMID:  11029012]

[95]
Horvat A, Granato G, Fogliano V, Luning PA. Understanding consumer data use in new product development and the product life cycle in European food firms – An empirical study. Food Qual Prefer  2019; 76: 20-32.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.03.008]

[96]
Javidi F, Razavi SMA, Amini A. Cornstarch nanocrystals as a potential fat replacer in reduced fat O/W emulsions: A rheological and physical study. Food Hydrocoll  2019; 90: 172-81.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.12.003]

[97]
Yalmanci D, Dertli E, Tekin-Cakmak ZH, Karasu S. The stabilisation of low‐fat mayonnaise by whey protein isolate‐microbial exopolysaccharides (Weissella confusa W‐16 strain) complex. Int J Food Sci Technol  2023; 58(3): 1307-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16287]

[98]
Lee CH, Chin KB. Development of low‐fat sausages using basil seed gum (Ocimum bacilicum L.) and gelatin as a fat replacer. Int J Food Sci Technol  2017; 52(3): 733-40.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13328]

[99]
Tekin-Cakmak ZH, Atik I, Karasu S. The potential use of cold-pressed pumpkin seed oil by-products in a low-fat salad dressing: the effect on rheological, microstructural, recoverable properties, and emulsion and oxidative stability. Foods  2021; 10(11): 2759.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods10112759] [PMID:  34829043]

[100]
Canuto JMP, Batista RA, Meza SLR, Sinnecker JP, Bonsanto FP, Yoshida CMP, et al. Effects of adding inulin and chia mucilage in the production of mayonnaise with reduced fat and cholesterol: technological, nutritional, and sensory aspects. ObserEcon Latin  2024; 22(2): e3246.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.55905/oelv22n2-101]

[101]
Wang W, Hu C, Sun H, et al. Low-cholesterol-low-fat mayonnaise prepared from soybean oil body as a substitute for egg yolk: The effect of substitution ratio on physicochemical properties and sensory evaluation. Lebensm Wiss Technol  2022; 167: 113867.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113867]

[102]
Mohammadi S, Alimi M, Shahidi SA, Shokoohi S. Investigating the physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties of low‐fat mayonnaise prepared with amaranth protein as an egg yolk replacer. Food Sci Nutr  2024; 12(7): 5147-61.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.4163]

[103]
Rojas-Martin L, Quintana SE. García-Zapateiro LA. Physicochemical, rheological, and microstructural properties of low-fat mayonnaise manufactured with hydrocolloids from Dioscorea rotundata as a fat substitute. Processes  2023; 11(2): 492.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr11020492]

[104]
Dan Y, Baek Y, Jeong EW, Lee HG. Development of a novel fat reduction system with quercetin-loaded annealed wheat starch for enhanced emulsifying and oxidative stability in low-fat mayonnaise. J Food Eng  2024; 364: 111812.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2023.111812]

[105]
Lee ZJ, Tong SC, Tang TK, Lee YY. Palm‐based cellulose nanofiber isolated from mechano‐chemical processing as sustainable rheological modifier in reduced fat mayonnaise. J Food Sci  2022; 87(8): 3542-61.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.16250] [PMID:  35833588]

[106]
Ozcan I, Ozyigit E, Erkoc S, Tavman S, Kumcuoglu S. Investigating the physical and quality characteristics and rheology of mayonnaise containing aquafaba as an egg substitute. J Food Eng  2023; 344: 111388.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111388]

[107]
Sachko A, Sema O, Grinchenko O, Gubsky S. Canned beans aquafaba as an egg white substitute in the technology of low-fat mayonnaise. Eng Proc  2023; 56(1): 206.

[108]
Yalmanci D, Dertli E, Tekin-Cakmak ZH, Karasu S. Utilization of exopolysaccharide produced by Leuconostoc lactis GW-6 as an emulsifier for low-fat mayonnaise production. Int J Biol Macromol  2023; 226: 772-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.069] [PMID:  36521704]

[109]
Ali MR. EL Said RM. Assessment of the potential of Arabic gum as an antimicrobial and antioxidant agent in developing vegan “egg‐free” mayonnaise. J Food Saf  2020; 40(2): e12771.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12771]

[110]
Liu R, Tian Z, Song Y, Wu T, Sui W, Zhang M. Optimization of the production of microparticulated egg white proteins as fat mimetic in salad dressings using uniform design. Food Sci Technol Res  2018; 24(5): 817-27.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3136/fstr.24.817]

[111]
Avci E, Akcicek A, Tekin Cakmak ZH, Kasapoglu MZ, Sagdic O, Karasu S. Isolation of protein and fiber from hot pepper seed oil byproduct to enhance rheology, emulsion, and oxidative stability of low-fat salad dressing. ACS Omega  2024; 9(9): 10243-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c07410]

[112]
Okunogbe A, Nugent R, Spencer G, Ralston J, Wilding J. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for eight countries. BMJ Glob Health  2021; 6(10): e006351.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006351] [PMID:  34737167]
Cite As
Current Nutrition & Food Science

Potential of Fat Replacers To Develop Low/Or Reduced-Fat Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing Systems: An Updated Review

Abstract

Graphical Abstract
