Phytopharmacological update on Cannabis sativa (Ganja): A Mini Review

Tushar      Varshney; Mohit      Sanduja; Devender      Pathak; Anuj   Kumar   Sharma; Vibha      Kumari; Manjul   Pratap   Singh; Mayank      Kulshreshtha
Abstract

Cannabis sativa L., a significant herbaceous species in Central Asia, has long been valued for its use in traditional medicine and as a source of textile fiber. This fast-growing plant has recently drawn increased attention because of its many applications. It is an abundant source of wood and cellulosic fibers and a true treasure of phytochemicals. This plant greatly interests the construction and pharmaceutical sectors because its metabolites have potent biological ef-fects on human health. Its inner and outer stem tissues may be used to make concrete-like mate-rials and bioplastics. This study aims to summarize the molecular and scientific knowledge of Cannabis sativa, including its pharmacognostic properties, pharmacological potential, phyto-chemical properties, and prospective future research fields.
[1]
Sofowora A, Ogunbodede E, Onayade A. The role and place of medicinal plants in the strategies for disease prevention. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med  2013; 10(5): 210-29.

[2]
Evans WC. Trease and Evans’ Pharmacognosy.  (16th ed.), London: WB Saunders Company Ltd 2008.

[3]
Sofowora A. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa.  (3rd ed.), Ibadan: Spectrum Books 2008.

[4]
Andre CM, Hausman JF, Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: The plant of the thousand and one molecules. Front Plant Sci  2016; 7: 19.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00019] [PMID:  26870049]

[5]
ElSohly MA, Radwan MM, Gul W, Chandra S, Galal A. Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L. Prog Chem Org Nat Prod  2017; 103: 1-36.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_1] [PMID:  28120229]

[6]
Baldino L, Scognamiglio M, Reverchon E. Supercritical fluid technologies applied to the extraction of compounds of industrial interest from Cannabis sativa L. and to their pharmaceutical formulations: A review. J Supercrit Fluids  2020; 165: 104960.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2020.104960]

[7]
Brunetti P, Pichini S, Pacifici R, Busardò FP, del Rio A. Herbal preparations of medical cannabis: A vademecum for prescribing doctors. Medicina  2020; 56(5): 237.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56050237] [PMID:  32429074]

[8]
Lewis MM, Yang Y, Wasilewski E, Clarke HA, Kotra LP. Chemical profiling of medical Cannabis extracts. ACS Omega  2017; 2(9): 6091-103.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.7b00996] [PMID:  30023762]

[9]
Odieka AE, Obuzor GU, Oyedeji OO, Gondwe M, Hosu YS, Oyedeji AO. The medicinal natural products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A review. Molecules  2022; 27(5): 1689.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051689] [PMID:  35268790]

[10]
WHO World Health Organization. 2016. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241510240

[11]
UNODC. 2016. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/crime-prevention-criminal-justice/module-12/index.html

[12]
Modaresi F, Talachian K. The characteristics of clinical trials on cannabis and cannabinoids: a review of trials for therapeutic or drug development purposes. Pharmaceut Med  2022; 36(6): 387-400.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40290-022-00447-7] [PMID:  36357543]

[13]
 Available from: https://sites.google.com/site/indiannamesofplants/via-species/c/cannabis-sativa (Assessed 23-02-2023).

[14]
 Marijuana Available from: http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Marijuana.html (Assessed 23-02-2023).

[15]
 Available from: https://www.google.com/search?q=cannabis+sativa+agriculture&rlz=1C1ONGR

[16]
 Available from: https://www.google.com/search?q=Traditional+use+of+cannabis+sativa+&rlz=1C1ONGR_enIN1021IN1021

[17]
 Available from: https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/cannabis/sativa/ (Assessed 27-02-2023).

[18]
Russo EB. History of cannabis and its preparations in saga, science, and sobriquet. Chem Biodivers  2007; 4(8): 1614-48.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.200790144] [PMID:  17712811]

[19]
Rajavashisth TB, Shaheen M, Norris KC, et al. Decreased prevalence of diabetes in marijuana users: cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III. BMJ Open  2012; 2(1): e000494.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000494] [PMID:  22368296]

[20]
Cao R, Wang J, Zhang W, et al. Is Marijuana beneficial for prevention and treatment of diabetes? Am J Biomed Sci  2017; 9: 200-10.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.5099/aj170400200]

[21]
Levendal RA, Frost CL. In vivo effects of Cannabis sativa L. extract on blood coagulation, fat and glucose metabolism in normal and streptozocin-induced diabetic rats. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med  2006; 3(4): 1-12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v3i4.31172]

[22]
Ramer R, Hinz B. New insights into antimetastatic and antiangiogenic effects of cannabinoids. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol  2015; 314: 43-116.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.ircmb.2014.10.005] [PMID:  25619715]

[23]
MacHado Rocha FC, Stéfano SC, De Cássia Haiek R, Rosa Oliveira LMQ, Da Silveira DX. Therapeutic use of Cannabis sativa on chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting among cancer patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer Care  2008; 17(5): 431-43.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2008.00917.x] [PMID:  18625004]

[24]
Alexander A, Smith PF, Rosengren RJ. Cannabinoids in the treatment of cancer. Cancer Lett  2009; 285(1): 6-12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2009.04.005] [PMID:  19442435]

[25]
Freimuth N, Ramer R, Hinz B. Antitumorigenic effects of cannabinoids beyond apoptosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther  2010; 332(2): 336-44.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/jpet.109.157735] [PMID:  19889794]

[26]
Sevcík J, Masek K. Potential role of cannabinoids in Parkinson’s disease. Drugs Aging  2000; 16(6): 391-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200016060-00001] [PMID:  10939305]

[27]
Hernandez F, Chandra S. The current state and potential direction of cannabis research. J Complement Integr Med  2016; 6: 44-8.

[28]
Sharma SR, Gupta P, Kumar R, Singh B. Marijuana from poison to pills A Review JIAFM  2006; 28: 162-9.

[29]
Tomida I, Pertwee RG, Azuara-Blanco A. Cannabinoids and glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol  2004; 88(5): 708-13.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2003.032250] [PMID:  15090428]

[30]
Swift W, Gates P, Dillon P. Survey of Australians using cannabis for medical purposes. Harm Reduct J  2005; 2(1): 18.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-2-18] [PMID:  16202145]

[31]
Selvarajah D, Gandhi R, Emery CJ, Tesfaye S. Randomized placebo-controlled doubleblind clinical trial of cannabis based medicinal product (Sativex) in painful diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care  2010; 33(1): 128-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc09-1029] [PMID:  19808912]

[32]
Denson TF, Earleywine M. Decreased depression in marijuana users. Addict Behav  2006; 31(4): 738-42.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.052] [PMID:  15964704]

[33]
Fukuda S, Kohsaka H, Takayasu A, et al. Cannabinoid receptor 2 as a potential therapeutic target in rheumatoid arthritis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord  2014; 15(1): 275.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-15-275] [PMID:  25115332]

[34]
Bridgeman MB, Daniel T, Abazia DT. Medicinal cannabis: History, pharmacology, and implications for the acute care setting. P&T  2017; 42(3): 180-8.

[35]
Moisto SA, Galizio M, Connors GJ. Drug Use and Abuse.  (3rd ed.), New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers 1999.

[36]
Meiri E, Jhangiani H, Vredenburgh JJ, et al. Efficacy of dronabinol alone and in combination with ondansetron versus ondansetron alone for delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Curr Med Res Opin  2007; 23(3): 533-43.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1185/030079907X167525] [PMID:  17355735]

[37]
Alsasua del Valle A. Implication of cannabinoids in neurological diseases. Cell Mol Neurobiol  2006; 26(4-6): 577-89.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10571-006-9070-8] [PMID:  16699878]

[38]
Ayenigbara GO. Cannabis sativa: A plant with multiple utilities, misunderstood, and a victim of controversial hypocrisy. J Emerg Trends Educ Res Policy Stud  2014; 5: 54-9.

[39]
Tashkin DP. Does marijuana pose risks for chronic airflow obstruction? Ann Am Thorac Soc  2015; 12(2): 235-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201412-581ED] [PMID:  25706487]

[40]
Fischer B, Imtiaz S, Rudzinski K, Rehm J. Crude estimates of cannabis-attributable mortality and morbidity in Canada–implications for public health focused intervention priorities. J Public Health  2016; 38(1): 183-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdv005] [PMID:  25630540]

[41]
Lai HMX, Sitharthan T. Exploration of the comorbidity of cannabis use disorders and mental health disorders among inpatients presenting to all hospitals in New South Wales, Australia. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse  2012; 38(6): 567-74.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2012.694523] [PMID:  22746224]

[42]
Sanches RF, Marques JMA. Cannabis e humor. Rev Bras Psiquiatr  2010; 32(2): 173-80.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462010000200014] [PMID:  20658056]

[43]
Borges G, Bagge CL, Orozco R. A literature review and meta-analyses of cannabis use and suicidality. J Affect Disord  2016; 195: 63-74.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.007] [PMID:  26872332]

[44]
du Plessis SS, Agarwal A, Syriac A. Marijuana, phytocannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system, and male fertility. J Assist Reprod Genet  2015; 32(11): 1575-88.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10815-015-0553-8] [PMID:  26277482]

[45]
The classification of cannabis under the misuse of drugs act 1971, advisory council on the misuse of drugs. 2002. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a7ac2d840f0b66a2fc029f0/cannabis-class-misuse-drugs-act.pdf

[46]
Hazekamp A, Simons R, Peltenburg-Looman A, Sengers M, van Zweden R, Verpoorte R. Preparative isolation of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa by centrifugal partition chromatography. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol  2004; 27(15): 2421-39.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/JLC-200028170]

[47]
Leghissa A, Hildenbrand ZL, Schug KA. A review of methods for the chemical characterization of cannabis natural products. J Sep Sci  2018; 41(1): 398-415.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201701003] [PMID:  28986974]

[48]
Citti C, Braghiroli D, Vandelli MA, Cannazza G. Pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis of cannabinoids: A critical review. J Pharm Biomed Anal  2018; 147: 565-79.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2017.06.003] [PMID:  28641906]

[49]
De Backer B, Debrus B, Lebrun P, et al. Innovative development and validation of an HPLC/DAD method for the qualitative and quantitative determination of major cannabinoids in cannabis plant material. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci  2009; 877(32): 4115-24.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.11.004] [PMID:  19932642]

[50]
Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Soydaner U, Öztürk E, et al. Evolution of the cannabinoid and Terpene content during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants from different Chemotypes. J Nat Prod  2016; 79(2): 324-31.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00949] [PMID:  26836472]

[51]
Dallüge J, Beens J, Brinkman UAT. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography: A powerful and versatile analytical tool. J Chromatogr A  2003; 1000(1-2): 69-108.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(03)00242-5] [PMID:  12877167]

[52]
Gröger T, Schäffer M, Pütz M, et al. Application of two-dimensional gas chromatography combined with pixel-based chemometric processing for the chemical profiling of illicit drug samples. J Chromatogr A  2008; 1200(1): 8-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.05.028] [PMID:  18539290]

[53]
Omar J, Olivares M, Amigo JM, Etxebarria N. Resolution of co-eluting compounds of Cannabis sativa in comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/mass spectrometry detection with multivariate curve resolution-alternating least squares. Talanta  2014; 121: 273-80.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2013.12.044] [PMID:  24607138]

[54]
Beasley E, Francese S, Bassindale T. Detection and mapping of cannabinoids in single hair samples through rapid derivatization and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry. Anal Chem  2016; 88(20): 10328-34.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03551] [PMID:  27648476]

[55]
Hazekamp A, Peltenburg A, Verpoorte R, Giroud C. Chromatographic and spectroscopic data of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol  2005; 28(15): 2361-82.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826070500187558]

[56]
Mutje P. Full exploitation of Cannabis sativa as reinforcement/filler of thermoplastic composite materials. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf  2007; 38(2): 369-77.

[57]
Pourseyed Lazarjani M, Torres S, Hooker T, Fowlie C, Young O, Seyfoddin A. Methods for quantification of cannabinoids: A narrative review. Journal of Cannabis Research  2020; 2(1): 35.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42238-020-00040-2] [PMID:  33526084]

[58]
Zuardi AW. History of cannabis as a medicine: A review. Rev Bras Psiquiatr  2006; 28(2): 153-7.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462006000200015] [PMID:  16810401]

[59]
Munro S, Thomas KL, Abu-Shaar M. Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids. Nature  1993; 365(6441): 61-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/365061a0] [PMID:  7689702]

[60]
Devane WA, Hanuš L, Breuer A, et al. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science  1992; 258(5090): 1946-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1470919] [PMID:  1470919]

[61]
Stella N, Schweitzer P, Piomelli D. A second endogenous cannabinoid that modulates long-term potentiation. Nature  1997; 388(6644): 773-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/42015] [PMID:  9285589]

[62]
Sugiura T, Kishimoto S, Oka S, Gokoh M. Biochemistry, pharmacology and physiology of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand. Prog Lipid Res  2006; 45(5): 405-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2006.03.003] [PMID:  16678907]

[63]
Piomelli D. The molecular logic of endocannabinoid signalling. Nat Rev Neurosci  2003; 4(11): 873-84.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn1247] [PMID:  14595399]

[64]
De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V. An introduction to the endocannabinoid system: From the early to the latest concepts. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab  2009; 23(1): 1-15.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2008.10.013] [PMID:  19285257]

[65]
Abouchedid R, Ho JH, Hudson S, et al. Acute toxicity associated with use of 5F-derivations of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists with analytical confirmation. J Med Toxicol  2016; 12(4): 396-401.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7] [PMID:  27456262]

[66]
Huestis MA, Henningfield JE, Cone EJ. Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana. J Anal Toxicol  1992; 16(5): 276-82.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/16.5.276] [PMID:  1338215]

[67]
Lemberger L, Axelrod J, Kopin IJ. Metabolism and disposition of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. Pharmacol Rev  1971; 23(4): 371-80.
 [PMID:  4943951]

[68]
Goullé JP, Saussereau E, Lacroix C. (Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol pharmacokinetics). Ann Pharm Fr  2008; 66(4): 232-44.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharma.2008.07.006] [PMID:  18847571]

[69]
Vandevenne M, Vandenbussche H, Verstraete A. Detection time of drugs of abuse in urine. Acta Clin Belg  2000; 55(6): 323-33.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17843286.2000.11754319] [PMID:  11484423]

[70]
Huestis MA. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of the plant cannabinoids, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and cannabinol. Handb Exp Pharmacol  2005; 168(168): 657-90.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-26573-2_23] [PMID:  16596792]

[71]
Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinet  2003; 42(4): 327-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200342040-00003] [PMID:  12648025]

[72]
Lindgren JE, Ohlsson A, Agurell S. Clinical effects and plasma levels of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 9-THC) in heavy and light users of cannabis. Psychopharmacology  1981; 74(3): 208-12.

[73]
Wall M, Perez-Reyes M. The metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and related cannabinoids in man. J Clin Pharmacol  1981; 21(S1): 178S-89S.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1981.tb02594.x] [PMID:  6271823]

[74]
Smith-Kielland A, Skuterud B, Mørland J. Urinary excretion of 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinoids in frequent and infrequent drug users. J Anal Toxicol  1999; 23(5): 323-32.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/23.5.323] [PMID:  10488918]

[75]
Harvey DJ. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of the cannabinoids. In: Watson RR, Ed. Biochemistry and physiology of substance abuse.  Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press 1991; pp. 279-365.

[76]
Hawksworth G, McArdle K. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids. In: Guy GW, Whittle BA, Robson PJ, Eds. The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids.  London: Pharmaceutical Press 2004; pp. 205-28.

[77]
Huestis MA. Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chem Biodivers  2007; 4(8): 1770-804.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.200790152] [PMID:  17712819]

[78]
Huestis MA, Smith ML. Cannabinoid pharmacokinetics and disposition in alternative matrices. In: Pertwee RG, Ed. Handbook of cannabis.  Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014; pp. 296-316.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199662685.003.0016]

[79]
Devinsky O, Cilio MR, Cross H, et al. Cannabidiol: Pharmacology and potential therapeutic role in epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Epilepsia  2014; 55(6): 791-802.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/epi.12631] [PMID:  24854329]

[80]
Almogi-Hazan O, Or R. Cannabis, the endocannabinoid system and immunity—the journey from the bedside to the bench and back. Int J Mol Sci  2020; 21(12): 4448.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124448] [PMID:  32585801]

[81]
Salzet M, Breton C, Bisogno T, Di Marzo V. Comparative biology of the endocannabinoid system. Eur J Biochem  2000; 267(16): 4917-27.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01550.x] [PMID:  10931174]

[82]
Ingvardsen CR, Brinch-Pedersen H. Challenges and potentials of new breeding techniques in Cannabis sativa. Front Plant Sci  2023; 14: 1154332.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1154332] [PMID:  37360738]
Cite As
Current Functional Foods

Phytopharmacological update on Cannabis sativa (Ganja): A Mini Review

Abstract
