Anatomical variations in the human species can be attributed to interactions between genetic influences and environmental factors. These variations also permeate dental morphology, and dental morphological traits are of value for understanding variations among populations. Dental anthropologists have cataloged this diversity, and these traits have been used in various disciplines. To establish population-based data, both metric and nonmetric dental trait frequencies are required. These anatomical attributes have applications in forensic odontology and archaeological contexts. Both nonmetric and metric traits are being used in the fields of dental profiling (assessing age, sex and ethnicity) and bite mark analysis. A trait that is higher in number in one population may be considered normal in the population. In contrast, if a trait is found at a low frequency, it could inadvertently be considered an anomaly. It can help in determining the relationship with ancestry, which justifies the significance of data pools of dental traits in human forensic identification. Although numerous studies of dental anatomical landmarks and peculiarities have been carried out in search of population patterns worldwide, India has yet to establish a database for its population. This highlights the need for an area-specific, gender- and ethnicity-based database of dental traits for the population of the Indian continent, which does not exist at present. 

Dental age estimation is important in both comparative and reconstructive forensic identification, where chronological age is either unknown or deliberately hidden or forged due to criminal, civil or legal disputes. Age estimation is possible right from prenatal life to early postnatal, childhood, adolescent and adult age, but the methods or principles differ in implementation. While the developmental stages of teeth are important to assess age in a young life, the morphologic changes after the complete development of teeth or third molar indices become important in adulthood. This chapter classifies different methods used in dental age determination, including visual, radiographic, physical, histologic, biochemical, and morphologic changes, in different age groups and gives a diagrammatic representation for ease of understanding. The evolution of atlas/chart methods for developing teeth has been explained in detail, including the conventional Schour and Massler chart to the contemporary London atlas method. Additionally, an overview of the more objective scoring methods, including Demirjian and its modifications, comprehensive DAEcc charts, Camariere methods, etc., is also given. This chapter also entails the most recent advances in age estimation techniques, including 3-D CBCT/micro-CT volumetric assessments and automated age estimation programs, along with the current use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the segmentation of radiographic images of teeth for greater accuracy and automation. The comprehensiveness of this chapter is established by the inclusion of dental age estimation in special situations of craniofacial abnormalities, archeology or fossil evidence. Towards the end, it also highlights the importance of using more than one age estimation method while preparing a forensic age estimation report or in research, also mentioning the error rate in each method.

Despite the fact that the world is a lovely spot to live, violations, brutality, mishaps, and fiascos happen on a regular basis. Being that as it may, distinguishing and bringing the guilty party(s) to discipline and carrying comfort to the family members of the person in question or the deceased by recognizing the perished is the best equity we can manage, and criminological medication assumes a significant part in it. A forensic examination team might include law implementing authorities- criminological pathologists, measurable odontologists, legal anthropologists, serologists, criminalists, and different experts relying upon the conditions. Singular ID may in like manner be expected to recognize both a lost live presenting with amnesia and the liable gatherings doing incorrectly doings.

 The current advances in DNA fingerprinting have significantly revolutionized forensic odontology. DNA, the language of life, manages all cell activities, which gives unimaginable data related to health and disease. Although the medical and dental records of the patient are the gold standard in forensic identification, DNA fingerprinting has plodded along with conventional fingerprints and blooming in forensic science. Following natural mass calamities or non-natural catastrophes, when the other means of traditional identification become impossible, teeth serve as a rich source of DNA due to their resistance to physical and chemical insults. The recent techniques in the isolation of DNA, the ways of running a DNA fingerprint and their significance in identifying the truth from untruth are highlighted in the chapter.

All dental data offer information for a timely, cheap, and effective human identification process. Dental autopsy and dental data-analysis can be pivotal in disaster victim identification to such an extent that failure to employ odontologists can reduce additional findings and delays in the DVI process. Partial and full dentures found-alongside the remains can offer information on the dental history, the material employed, dietary and sociocultural information, and when jaws are fragmented or disarticulated, offer a possible technical response on the number of individuals involved. Particularly relevant are the printed palatal rugae in the palatal surface of the upper denture. An individual wearing one or two full dentures is obviously totally edentulous. In the upper, lower, or both jaws, family members living together will surely be aware of this circumstance. In the interview for the collection of antemortem dental data, they were asked specifically about any dental prosthetics or orthotics worn or used by the deceased. Greater emphasis should be placed on recording and archiving patients’ oral health data, including material specifications of fixed and removable prosthetics, encouraging the use of digital and electronic oral health records and international collaboration in the DVIscenario, and employing teleconsultation tools.

 Identity is central to an individual’s personality and his/her existence. The face is synonymous with identity. Identity needs to be proven in daily life transactions for security reasons. Identity (be it of the victim or the suspect) is also a paramount investigative question for which the answer is not straightforward. The orofacial region is packed with individualistic information ready to be explored in different areas, such as disasters, crimes, civil matters, and access to property (biometrics). The orofacial structures offer diverse solutions to the common questions of identity. The choice of a specific technique is governed by the circumstances that call for identification and the advantages-disadvantages of the technique. 

Teeth can be used as a weapon when an individual tries to harm another, or can be used by the victim attempting to protect themselves from an attacker. Bite marks are a clinical representation of intraoral structures (tooth and other soft tissues) on any object by an animal or human. Bite mark assessment can play a critical role in the identification of persons in forensic-related cases. Bite marks are usually found in various crime scenes, such as sexual assault, rape, murder, cases of child abuse and during sports activities. This chapter reviews the basics of the bite mark pattern, characteristics, and significance of bite marks in forensic science to solve crimes.