[1]
Conn JW, Part I. Painting background. Part II. Primary aldosteronism, a new clinical syndrome. J Lab Clin Med 1955; 45: 3-17.
[2]
Funder JW. Aldosterone and mineralocorticoid receptors-physiology and pathophysiology. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18: E1032.
[3]
Mulatero P, Stowasser M, Loh KC, et al. Increased diagnosis of primary aldosteronism, including surgically correctable forms, in centers from five continents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 1045-50.
[4]
Faselis C, Doumas M, Papademetriou V. Common secondary causes of resistant hypertension and rational for treatment. Int J Hypertens 2011; 2011: 236239.
[5]
Funder JW, Carey RM, Mantero F, et al. The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101: 1889-916.
[6]
Rossi GP, Bernini G, Caliumi C, et al. A prospective study of the prevalence of primary aldosteronism in 1,125 hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48: 2293-300.
[7]
Douma S, Petidis K, Doumas M, et al. Prevalence of primary hyperaldosteronism in resistant hypertension: a retrospective observational study. Lancet 2008; 371: 1921-6.
[8]
Käyser SC, Dekkers T, Groenewoud HJ, et al. Study heterogeneity and estimation of prevalence of primary aldosteronism: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101: 2826-35.
[9]
Maiolino G, Rossitto G, Bisogni V, et al. Quantitative Value of Aldosterone-Renin Ratio for Detection of Aldosterone-Producing Adenoma: The Aldosterone-Renin Ratio for Primary Aldosteronism (AQUARR) Study. J Am Heart Assoc 2017; 6: e005574.
[10]
Monticone S, Burrello J, Tizzani D, et al. Prevalence and clinical manifestations of primary aldosteronism encountered in Primary Care Practice. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69: 1811-20.
[11]
Savard S, Amar L, Plouin PF, et al. Cardiovascular complications associated with primary aldosteronism: a controlled cross-sectional study. Hypertension 2013; 62: 331-6.
[12]
Monticone S, D’Ascenzo F, Moretti C, et al. Cardiovascular events and target organ damage in primary aldosteronism compared with essential hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2018; 6: 41-50.
[13]
Doumas M, Douma S. Primary aldosteronism: a field on the move.In: Tsioufis C, Schmieder R, Mancia G, eds Interventional Therapies for Secondary and Essential Hypertension, Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing 2016; pp. 26-55.
[14]
Doumas M, Athyros V, Papademetriou V. Screening for primary aldosteronism: whom and how? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2015; 17: 547-8.
[15]
Stavropoulos K, Imprialos KP, Doumas M. Bypass of confirmatory tests for case detection of primary aldosteronism in leaner patients? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2017; 19: 798-800.
[16]
Wolley MJ, Stowasser M. New advances in the diagnostic workup of primary aldosteronism. J Endocr Soc 2017; 1: 149-61.
[17]
Nishikawa T, Omura M, Satoh F, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of primary aldosteronism-the Japan Endocrine Society 2009. Endocr J 2011; 58: 711-21.
[18]
Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018; 71: e127-248.
[19]
Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens 2013; 31: 1281-357.
[20]
Stavropoulos K, Imprialos KP, Katsiki N, et al. Primary aldosteronism in patients with adrenal incidentaloma: Is screening appropriate for everyone? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2018; 20: 942-8.
[21]
Williams TA, Reincke M. MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Diagnosis and Management of Primary Aldosteronism: the Endocrine Society guideline 2016 revisited. Eur J Endocrinol 2018. pii: EJE-17-0990
[22]
Fassnacht M, Arlt W, Bancos I, et al. Management of adrenal incidentalomas: European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline in collaboration with the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors. Eur J Endocrinol 2016; 175: G1-G34.
[23]
Amar L, Baguet JP, Bardet S, et al. SFE/SFHTA/AFCE primary aldosteronism consensus: introduction and handbook. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 2016; 77: 179-86.
[24]
Doumas M, Athyros V, Papademetriou V. Screening for primary aldosteronism: whom and how? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2015; 17: 547-8.
[25]
Young WF, Stanson AW, Thompson GB, et al. Role for adrenal venous sampling in ptimary aldosteronism. Surgery 2004; 136: 1227-35.
[26]
Patel SM, Lingam RK, Beaconsfield TI, et al. Role of radiology in the management of primary aldosteronism. Radiographics 2007; 27: 1145-57.
[27]
Kempers MJ, Lenders JW, van Outheusden L, et al. Systematic review: diagnostic procedure to differentiate unilateral from bilateral adrenal abnormality in primary aldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 2009; 151: 329-37.
[28]
Raman SP, Lessne M, Kawamoto S, et al. Diagnostic performance of multidetector computed tomography in distinguishing unilateral from bilateral abnormalities in primary hyperaldosteronism: comparison of multidetector computed tomography with adrenal vein sampling. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2015; 39: 414-8.
[29]
Deinum J, Prejbisz A, Lenders JWM, et al. Adrenal Vein Sampling Is the Preferred Method to Select Patients With Primary Aldosteronism for Adrenalectomy: Con Side of the Argument. Hypertension 2018; 71: 10-4.
[30]
Williams TA, Burrello J, Sechi LA, et al. Computed tomography and adrenal venous sampling in the diagnosis of unilateral primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2018; 82: 641-9.
[31]
Rossi GD, Auchus RJ, Brown M, et al. An Expert Consensus Statement on Use of Adrenal Vein Sampling for the Subtyping of Primary Aldosteronism. Hypertension 2014; 63: 151-60.
[32]
Rossi GP, Funder JW. Adrenal Vein Sampling Is the Preferred Method to Select Patients With Primary Aldosteronism for Adrenalectomy: Pro Side of the Argument. Hypertension 2018; 71: 5-9.
[33]
Rossi GP. Update in adrenal venous sampling for primary aldosteronism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2018; 25: 160-71.
[34]
Heinze B, Fuss CT, Mulatero P, et al. Targeting CXCR4 (CXC Chemokine Receptor Type 4) for molecular imaging of aldosterone-producing adenoma. Hypertension 2018; 71: 317-25.
[35]
Seccia TM, Caroccia B, Adler GK, et al. Arterial hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and hyperaldosteronism: the triple trouble. Hypertension 2017; 69: 545-50.
[36]
Gaddam K, Corros C, Primenta E, et al. Rapid reversal of left ventricular hypertrophy and intracardiac volume overload in patient with resistant hypertension and hyperaldosteronism: a prospective clinical study. Hypertension 2010; 55: 11-37.
[37]
Chen ZW, Huang KC, Lee JK, et al. Aldosterone induces left ventricular subclinical systolic dysfunction: a strain imaging study. J Hypertens 2018; 36: 353-60.
[38]
Rizzoni D, Paiardi S, Rodella L, et al. Changes in extracellular matrix in subcutaneous small resistance arteries of patients with primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2638-42.
[39]
Rossi GP, Cesari M, Pessina AC. Left ventricular changes in primary aldosteronism. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 96-8.
[40]
Pimenta E, Gordon RD, Ahmed AH, et al. Cardiac dimensions are largely determined by dietary salt in patients with primary aldosteronism: results of a case-control study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: 2813-20.
[41]
Muiesan ML, Salvetti M, Paini A, et al. Inappropriate left ventricular mass in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2008; 52: 529-34.
[42]
Bernini G, Galetta F, Franzoni F, et al. Arterial stiffness, intima-media thickness and carotid artery fibrosis in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens 2008; 26: 2399-405.
[43]
Holaj R, Zelinka T, Wichterle D, et al. Increased intima-media thickness of the common carotid artery in primary aldosteronism in comparison with essential hypertension. J Hypertens 2007; 25: 1451-7.
[44]
Tsuchiya K, Yoshimoto T, Hirata Y. Endothelial dysfunction is related to aldosterone excess and raised blood pressure. Endocr J 2009; 56: 533-9.
[45]
Calhoun DA. Medical versus surgical treatment of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2018; 71: 566-8.
[46]
Amar L, Lorthioir A, Azizi M, et al. Progress in primary aldosteronism. Mineralocorticoid antagonist treatment for aldosterone-producing adenoma. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 172: R125-9.
[47]
Fischer E, Hanslik G, Pallauf A, et al. Prolonged zona glomerulosa insufficiency causing hyperkalemia in primary aldosteronism after adrenalectomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 3965-73.
[48]
Prada ETA, Burrello J, Reincke M, et al. Old and new concepts in the molecular pathogenesis of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2017; 70: 875-81.
[49]
Fischer E, Beuschlein F, Degenhart C, et al. Spontaneous remission of idiopathic aldosteronism after long-term treatment with spironolactone: results from the German Conn’s Registry. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 76: 473-7.
[50]
Armanini D, Fiore C, Pellati D. Spontaneous resolution of idiopathic aldosteronism after long-term treatment with potassium canrenoate. Hypertension 2007; 50: e69-70.
[51]
Yoneda T, Demura M, Takata H, et al. Unilateral primary aldosteronism with spontaneous remission after long-term spironolactone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 1109-13.
[52]
Sukor N, Kogovsek C, Gordon RD, et al. Improved quality of life, blood pressure, and biochemical status following laparoscopic adrenalectomy for unilateral primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 1360-4.
[53]
Künzel HE, Apostolopoulou K, Pallauf A, et al. Quality of life in patients with primary aldosteronism: Gender differences in untreated and long-term treated patients and associations with treatment and aldosterone. J Psychiatr Res 2012; 46: 1650-4.
[54]
Riester A, Reincke M. Progress in primary aldosteronism: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists and management of primary aldosteronism in pregnancy. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 172: R23-30.
[55]
Stavropoulos K, Sotiriadis A, Patoulias D, et al. Pseudohyperaldosteronism due to mumijo consumption during pregnancy: a licorise-like syndrome. Gynecol Endocrinol 2018; 34(12): 1091-21.
[56]
Jeunemaitre X, Chatellier G, Kreft-Jais C, et al. Efficacy and tolerance of spironolactone in essential hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1987; 60: 820-5.
[57]
Sica DA. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of mineralocorticoid blocking agents and their effects on potassium homeostasis. Heart Fail Rev 2005; 10: 23-9.
[58]
Faselis C, Boutari C, Doumas M, et al. Novel drugs for hypertension and heart failure: struggling for a place under the sum. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 23: 1540-50.
[59]
Hundemer GL, Curhan GC, Yozamp N, et al. Cardiometabolic outcomes and mortality in medically treated primary aldosteronism: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2018; 6: 51-9.
[60]
Wu VC, Wang SM, Chang CH, et al. Long term outcome of aldosteronism after target treatments. Sci Rep 2016; 6: 32103.
[61]
Catena C, Colussi G, Nadalini E, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism after treatment. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 80-5.
[62]
Williams B, MacDonald TM, Morant S, et al. Spironolactone versus placebo, bisoprolol, and doxazosin to determine the optimal treatment for drug-resistant hypertension (PATHWAY-2): a randomised, double-blind, crossover trial. Lancet 2015; 386: 2059-68.
[63]
Brown JJ, Davies DL, Ferriss JB, et al. Comparison of surgery and prolonged spironolactone therapy in patients with hypertension, aldosterone excess, and low plasma renin. BMJ 1972; 2: 729-34.
[64]
Horky K, Widimsky J Jr, Hradec E, et al. Long-term results of surgical and conservative treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism. Exp Clin Endocrinol 1987; 90: 337-46.
[65]
Karagiannis A. Treatment of primary aldosteronism: were are we now? Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2011; 12: 15-20.
[66]
Funder JW. Primary aldosteronism: are we missing the wood for the trees? Horm Metab Res 2012; 44: 251-3.
[67]
Lim PO, Jung RT, MacDonald TM. Raised aldosterone to renin ratio predicts antihypertensive efficacy of spironolactone: a prospective cohort follow-up study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 48: 756-60.
[68]
Karagiannis A, Tziomalos K, Kakafika AI, et al. Medical treatment as an alternative to adrenalectomy in patients with aldosterone-producing adenomas. Endocr Relat Cancer 2008; 15: 693-700.
[69]
Muth A, Ragnarsson O, Johannsson G, et al. Systematic review of surgery and outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism. Br J Surg 2015; 102: 307-17.
[70]
Benham JL, Eldoma M, Khokhar B, et al. Proportion of patients with hypertension resolution following adrenalectomy for primary aldosteronism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2016; 18: 1205-12.
[71]
Catena C, Colussi G, Lapenna R, et al. Long-term cardiac effects of adrenalectomy or mineralocorticoid antagonists in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2007; 50: 911-8.
[72]
Rossi GP, Cesari M, Cuspidi C, et al. Long-term control of arterial hypertension and regression of left ventricular hypertrophy with treatment of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2013; 62: 62-9.
[73]
Indra T, Holaj R, Strauch B, et al. Long-term effects of adrenalectomy or spironolactone on blood pressure control and regression of left ventricle hypertrophy in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2015; 16: 1109-17.
[74]
Park KS, Kim JH, Yang YS, et al. Outcomes analysis of surgical and medical treatments for patients with primary aldosteronism. Endocr J 2017; 64: 623-32.
[75]
Karagiannis A, Tziomalos K, Papageorgiou A, et al. Spironolactone versus eplerenone for the treatment of idiopathic hyperaldosteronism. Exp Opin Pharmacotheur 2008; 9: 509-15.
[76]
Karashima A, Yoneda T, Kometani M, et al. Comparison of eplerenone and spironolactone for the treatment of primary aldosteronism. Hypertens Res 2016; 39: 133-7.
[77]
Parthasarathy HK, Ménard J, White WB, et al. A double-blind, randomized study comparing the antihypertensive effect of eplerenone and spironolactone in patients with hypertension and evidence of primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 980-90.
[78]
Ori Y, Chagnac A, Korzets A, et al. Regression of left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with primary aldosteronism/low-renin hypertension on low dose spironolactone. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2013; 28: 1787-93.
[79]
Bernini G, Bacca A, Carli V, et al. Cardiovascular changes in patients with primary aldosteronism after surgical or medical treatment. J Endocrinol Invest 2012; 35: 274-80.
[80]
Muiesan ML, Salvetti M, Paini A, et al. Inappropriate left ventricular mass in patients with primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 2008; 52: 529-34.
[81]
Marzano L, Colussi G, Sechi LA, et al. Adrenalectomy is comparable with medical treatment for reduction of left ventricular mass in primary aldosteronism: meta-analysis of long-term studies. Am J Hypertens 2015; 28: 312-8.
[82]
Rossi GP, Maiolino G, Flego A, Wang M, Vaidya A, et al. Adrenalectomy lowers incident atrial fibrillation in primary aldosteronism patients at long term. Hypertension 2018; 71: 585-91.
[83]
Hundemer GL, Curhan GC, Yozamp N, Wang M, Vaidya A. Incidence of atrial fibrillation and mineralocorticoid receptor activity in patients with medically and surgically treated primary aldosteronism. JAMA Cardiol 2018; 3(8): 768-74.
[84]
Rossi GP, Bernini G, Desideri G, et al. Renal damage in primary aldosteronism: results of the PAPY Study. Hypertension 2006; 48: 232-8.
[85]
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2012 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Int Suppl 2013; 3(1): 1-150.
[86]
Sechi LA, Novello M, Lapenna R, et al. Long-term renal outcomes in patients with primary aldosteronism. JAMA 2006; 295: 2638-45.
[87]
Sechi LA, Di Fabio A, Bazzocchi M, et al. Intrarenal hemodynamics in primary aldosteronism before and after treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 1191-7.
[88]
Nakano Y, Yoshimoto T, Fukuda T, et al. Effect of eplerenone on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in primary aldosteronism: sequential changes in the GFR during preoperative eplerenone treatment to subsequent adrenalectomy. Intern Med 2018; 57(17): 2459-66.
[89]
Fourkiotis V, Vonend O, Diederich S, et al. Effectiveness of eplerenone or spironolactone treatment in preserving renal function in primary aldosteronism. Eur J Endocrinol 2012; 168: 75-81.
[90]
Steichen O, Lothioir A, Zinzindohoue F, et al. Outcomes of drug-based and surgical treatments for primary aldosteronism. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2015; 22: 196-203.
[91]
Brown JM, Robinson-Cohen C, Luque-Fernandez MA, et al. The spectrum of subclinical primary aldosteronism and incident hypertension: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2017; 167: 630-41.
[92]
Stavropoulos K, Imprialos KP, Doumas M, et al. Carotid intima-media thickness as a target-organ damage and treatment-target: need for a major revision? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2018; 20: 255-7.
[93]
Widimsky J Jr, Strauch B, Petrak O, et al. Vascular disturbances in primary aldosteronism: clinical evidence. Kidney Blood Press Res 2012; 35: 529-33.
[94]
Strauch B, Petrak O, Wichterle D, et al. Increased wall stiffness in primary aldosteronism in comparison with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2006; 19: 909-14.
[95]
Rizzoni D, Paiardi S, Rodella L, et al. Changes in extracellular matrix in subcutaneous small resistance arteries of patients with primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2638-42.
[96]
Matsuda Y, Kawate H, Matsuzaki C, et al. Eplerenone improves carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in patients with primary aldosteronism. Endocr J 2016; 63: 249-55.
[97]
Holaj R, Rosa J, Zelinka T, et al. Long-term effect of specific treatment of primary aldosteronism carotid intima-media thickness. J Hypertens 2015; 33: 874-82.
[99]
Funder JW. Primary aldosteronism: new answers, new questions. Horm Metab Res 2015; 57: 935-40.
Download PDF Flyer