Generic placeholder image

Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery

Author(s): Alexander K.C. Leung*, Alex H.C. Wong, Amy A.M. Leung and Kam L. Hon

DOI: 10.2174/1872213X13666181228154940

Cite As
Urinary Tract Infection in Children

Page: [2 - 18] Pages: 17

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Background: Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is a common infection in children. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment are very important to reduce the morbidity associated with this condition.

Objective: To provide an update on the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of urinary tract infection in children.

Methods: A PubMed search was completed in clinical queries using the key terms “urinary tract infection”, "pyelonephritis" OR "cystitis". The search strategy included meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, observational studies, and reviews. The search was restricted to English literature and the pediatric age group. Patents were searched using the key terms “urinary tract infection” "pyelonephritis" OR "cystitis" from www.google.com/patents, http://espacenet.com, and www.freepatentsonline.com.

Results: Escherichia coli accounts for 80 to 90% of UTI in children. The symptoms and signs are nonspecific throughout infancy. Unexplained fever is the most common symptom of UTI during the first two years of life. After the second year of life, symptoms and signs of pyelonephritis include fever, chills, rigor, flank pain, and costovertebral angle tenderness. Lower tract symptoms and signs include suprapubic pain, dysuria, urinary frequency, urgency, cloudy urine, malodorous urine, and suprapubic tenderness. A urinalysis and urine culture should be performed when UTI is suspected. In the work-up of children with UTI, physicians must judiciously utilize imaging studies to minimize exposure of children to radiation. While waiting for the culture results, prompt antibiotic therapy is indicated for symptomatic UTI based on clinical findings and positive urinalysis to eradicate the infection and improve clinical outcome. The choice of antibiotics should take into consideration local data on antibiotic resistance patterns. Recent patents related to the management of UTI are discussed.

Conclusion: Currently, a second or third generation cephalosporin and amoxicillin-clavulanate are drugs of choice in the treatment of acute uncomplicated UTI. Parenteral antibiotic therapy is recommended for infants ≤ 2 months and any child who is toxic-looking, hemodynamically unstable, immunocompromised, unable to tolerate oral medication, or not responding to oral medication. A combination of intravenous ampicillin and intravenous/intramuscular gentamycin or a third-generation cephalosporin can be used in those situations. Routine antimicrobial prophylaxis is rarely justified, but continuous antimicrobial prophylaxis should be considered for children with frequent febrile UTI.

Keywords: Ampicillin, cephalosporin, cystitis, Escherichia coli, gentamycin, pyelonephritis, urinalysis, urine culture.

[1]
Karmazyn BK, Alazraki AL, Anupindi SA, Dempsey ME, Dillman JR, Dorfman SR, et al. Expert panel on pediatric imaging: ACR appropriateness criteria, urinary tract infection-child. J Am Coll Radiol 2017; 14(5S): S362-71.
[2]
Korbel L, Howell M, Spencer JD. The clinical diagnosis and management of urinary tract infections in children and adolescents. Paediatr Int Child Health 2017; 37(4): 273-9.
[3]
Balighian E, Burke M. Urinary tract infections in children. Pediatr Rev 2018; 39(1): 3-12.
[4]
Clark CJ, Kennedy WA II, Shortliffe LD. Urinary tract infection in children: When to worry. Urol Clin North Am 2010; 37(2): 229-41.
[5]
Leung AK, Robson WL. Urinary tract infection in infancy and childhood. Adv Pediatr 1991; 38: 257-85.
[6]
Leung AK. Urinary tract infection Common problems in ambulatory pediatrics: Specific clinical problems. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc 2011; volume 1.: pp. 173-81.
[7]
Awais M, Rehman A, Baloch NU, Khan F, Khan N. Evaluation and management of recurrent urinary tract infections in children: State of the art. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2015; 13(2): 209-31.
[8]
Chang SL, Shortliffe LD. Pediatric urinary tract infections. Pediatr Clin North Am 2006; 53(3): 379-400.
[9]
Simões e Silva AC, Oliveira EA. Update on the approach of urinary tract infection in childhood. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2015; 91(6)(Suppl. 1): S2-S10.
[10]
Robinson JL, Finlay JC, Lang ME, Bortolussi R. Urinary tract infections in infants and children: Diagnosis and management. Paediatr Child Health 2014; 19(6): 315-25.
[11]
Schlager TA. Urinary tract infections in infants and children. Microbiol Spectr 2016; 4(5)
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0022-2016]
[12]
Zorc JJ, Kiddoo DA, Shaw KN. Diagnosis and management of pediatric urinary tract infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18(2): 417-22.
[13]
Stephens GM, Akers S, Nguyen H, Woxland H. Evaluation and management of urinary tract infections in the school-aged child. Prim Care 2015; 42(1): 33-41.
[14]
Larcombe J. Urinary tract infection in children. Am Fam Physician 2010; 82(10): 1252-6.
[15]
Copp HL, Schmidt B. Work-up of pediatric urinary tract infection. Urol Clin North Am 2015; 42(4): 519-26.
[16]
Jackson EC. Urinary tract infections in children: Knowledge updates and a salute to the future. Pediatr Rev 2015; 36(4): 153-64. quiz 165-6.
[17]
Shaikh N, Hoberman A. Urinary tract infections in children: Epidemiology and risk factors. In:Post TW, Ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA.. (Accessed on August 10, 2018)
[18]
Larcombe J. Urinary tract infection in children: Recurrent infections. BMJ Clin Evid 2015;. 2015. 0306
[19]
Drekonja DM, Johnson JR. Urinary tract infections. Prim Care 2008; 35(2): 345-67.
[20]
Morello W, La Scola C, Alberici I, Montini G. Acute pyelonephritis in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2016; 31(8): 1253-65.
[21]
Bell LE, Mattoo TK. Update on childhood urinary tract infection and vesicoureteral reflux. Semin Nephrol 2009; 29(4): 349-59.
[22]
Doern CD, Richardson SE. Diagnosis of urinary tract infections in children. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54(9): 2233-42.
[23]
Leung AK, Kao CP, Robson WL. Urinary tract infection due to Salmonella stanleyville in an otherwise healthy child. J Natl Med Assoc 2005; 97(2): 281-3.
[24]
Garout WA, Kurdi HS, Shilli AH, Kari JA. Urinary tract infection in children younger than 5 years. Etiology and associated urological anomalies. Saudi Med J 2015; 36(4): 497-501.
[25]
Stein R, Dogan HS, Hoebeke P, Kočvara R, Nijman RJ, Radmayr C, et al. European Association of Urology; European Society for Pediatric Urology. Urinary tract infections in children: EAU/ESPU guidelines. Eur Urol 2015; 67(3): 546-58.
[26]
Burckhardt I, Panitz J, van der Linden M, Zimmermann S. Streptococcus pneumoniae as an agent of urinary tract infections - A laboratory experience from 2010 to 2014 and further characterization of strains. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 86(1): 97-101.
[27]
Megged O. Staphylococcus aureus urinary tract infections in children are associated with urinary tract abnormalities and vesico-ureteral reflux. Pediatr Nephrol 2014; 29(2): 269-72.
[28]
Arora N, Saha A, Kaur M. Tuberculous pyelonephritis in children: Three case reports. Paediatr Int Child Health 2017; 37(4): 292-7.
[29]
Pougnet R, Sapin J, De Parscau L, Pougnet L. Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary tract infection in pedeatrics. Ann Biol Clin (Paris) 2017; 75(3): 348-50.
[30]
Desai DJ, Gilbert B, McBride CA. Paediatric urinary tract infections: Diagnosis and treatment. Aust Fam Physician 2016; 45(8): 558-63.
[31]
Schlager TA. Urinary tract infections in infants and children. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003; 17(2): 353-65.
[32]
Robson WL, Leung AK. Explanation for false-positive urine cultures obtained by bag technique. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149(9): 1042-8.
[33]
Alper BS, Curry SH. Urinary tract infection in children. Am Fam Physician 2005; 72(12): 2483-8.
[34]
Riccabona M. Urinary tract infections in children. Curr Opin Urol 2003; 13(1): 59-62.
[35]
Firoozeh F, Saffari M, Neamati F, Zibaei M. Detection of virulence genes in Escherichia coli isolated from patients with cystitis and pyelonephritis. Int J Infect Dis 2014; 29: 219-22.
[36]
Sedberry-Ross S, Pohl HG. Urinary tract infections in children. Curr Urol Rep 2008; 9(2): 165-71.
[37]
Mak RH, Kuo HJ. Pathogenesis of urinary tract infection: An update. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006; 18(2): 148-52.
[38]
Robson WL, Leung AK, Boag GS. Common pediatric urological disorders: Clinical and radiological evaluation. Can Fam Physician 1991; 37: 889-900.
[39]
Robson WL, Leung AK, Hyndman WC. Vesicoureteral reflux in childhood: Preventing urinary tract infections. Can Fam Physician 1992; 38: 2155-62.
[40]
Keren R, Shaikh N, Pohl H, Gravens-Mueller L, Ivanova A, Zaoutis L, et al. Risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection and renal scarring. Pediatrics 2015; 136(1): e13-21.
[41]
Shaikh N, Hoberman A. Urinary tract infections in infants older than one month and young children: Acute management, imaging, and prognosis.In: Post TW, Ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA.. (Accessed on August 10, 2018
[42]
Leung AK, Robson WL. Labial fusion and urinary tract infection. Child Nephrol Urol 1992; 12(1): 62-4.
[43]
Leung AK, Robson WL, Tay-Uyboco J. The incidence of labial fusion in children. J Paediatr Child Health 1993; 29(3): 235-6.
[44]
Leung AK, Robson WL. Labial fusion and asymptomatic bacteriuria. Eur J Pediatr 1993; 152(3): 250-1.
[45]
Leung AK, Robson WL, Kao CP, Liu EK, Fong JH. Treatment of labial fusion with topical estrogen therapy. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2005; 44(3): 245-7.
[46]
Morris BJ, Wiswell TE. Circumcision and lifetime risk of urinary tract infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Urol 2013; 189(6): 2118-24.
[47]
Nacaroglu HT, Demircin G, Bülbül M, Erdogan O, Akyüz SG, Caltik A. The association between urinary tract infection and idiopathic hypercalciuria in children. Ren Fail 2013; 35(3): 327-32.
[48]
Rabbani MA, Marfani R, Kumar M, Hasan N, Kumar S, El-Khalid S, et al. Unusual etiology of recurrent urinary tract infection. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 2012; 23(6): 1288-91.
[49]
Robson WL, Leung AK. Daytime wetting. J Pediatr 2001; 139(4): 609-10.
[50]
Robson WL, Leung AK. An approach to daytime wetting in children. Adv Pediatr 2006; 53: 323-65.
[51]
Gondim R, Azevedo R, Braga AANM, Veiga ML, Barroso U Jr. Risk factors for urinary tract infection in children with urinary urgency. Int Braz J Urol 2018; 44(2): 378-83.
[52]
Becknell B, Schober M, Korbel L, Spencer JD. The diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of acute and recurrent pediatric urinary tract infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2015; 13(1): 81-90.
[53]
Grier WR, Kratimenos P, Singh S, Guaghan JP, Koutroulis I. Obesity as a risk factor for urinary tract infection in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2016; 55(10): 952-6.
[54]
Mahyar A, Ayazi P, Gholmohammadi P, Moshiri SA, Oveisi S, Esmaeily S. The role of overweight and obesity in urinary tract infection in children. Infez Med 2016; 24(1): 38-42.
[55]
Övünç Hacıhamdioğlu D, Altun D, Hacıhamdioğlu B, Çekmez F, Aydemir G, Kul M, et al. The association between serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D Level and urine cathelicidin in children with a urinary tract infection. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 2016; 8(3): 325-9.
[56]
Rasmussen M, Sunde L, Andersen RF, Petersen OB. Fetal Medicine Research Group. Olsen MS. Infants with prenatally diagnosed kidney anomalies have an increased risk of urinary tract infections. Acta Paediatr 2017; 106(11): 1875-81.
[57]
Tekin M, Konca C, Celik V, Almis H, Kahramaner Z, Erdemir A, et al. The association between vitamin D levels and urinary tract infection in children. Horm Res Paediatr 2015; 83(3): 198-203.
[58]
Visuri S, Jahnukainen T, Taskinen S. Incidence of urinary tract infections in infants with antenatally diagnosed hydronephrosis-A retrospective single center study. J Pediatr Surg 2017; 52(9): 1503-6.
[59]
Yang TH, Yim HE, Yoo KH. Obesity and a febrile urinary tract infection: Dual burden for young children? Urology 2014; 84(2): 445-9.
[60]
Yang J, Chen G, Wang D, Chen M, Xing C, Wang B. Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and risk of urinary tract infection in infants. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95(27)e4137
[61]
Lo DS, Shieh HH, Barreira ER, Ragazzi SL, Gilio AE. High Frequency of Staphylococcus saprophyticus urinary tract infections among female adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2015; 34(9): 1023-35.
[62]
Carson CM, Phillip N, Miller BJ. Urinary tract infections in children and adolescents with acute psychosis. Schizophr Res 2017; 183: 36-40.
[63]
Laney D, Philip N, Miller BJ. Recurrent urinary tract infections in acute psychosis. Schizophr Res 2015; 164(1-3): 275-6.
[64]
Harshman VP, Kryuchko TO, Kolenko IO, Kushnereva TV, Tkachenko OY. Role of genetic mutations in development of immunological and clinical disorders in children with chronic pyelonephritis. Wiad Lek 2017; 70(1): 47-51.
[65]
Hussein A, Askar E, Elsaeid M, Schaefer F. Functional polymorphisms in transforming growth factor-beta-1 (TGFbeta-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) genes modify risk of renal parenchymal scarring following childhood urinary tract infection. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010; 25(3): 779-85.
[66]
Javor J, Králinský K, Sádová E, Červeňová O, Bucová M, Olejárová M, et al. Association of interleukin-10 gene promoter polymorphisms with susceptibility to acute pyelonephritis in children. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2014; 59(4): 307-13.
[67]
Savvidou A, Bitsori M, Choumerianou DM, Karatzi M, Kalmanti M, Galanakis E. Polymorphisms of the TNF-alpha and ACE genes, and renal scarring in infants with urinary tract infection. J Urol 2010; 183(2): 684-7.
[68]
Zaffanello M, Malerba G, Cataldi L, Antoniazzi F, Franchini M, Monti E, et al. Genetic risk for recurrent urinary tract infections in humans: A systematic review. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010: 3210-9.
[69]
Zaffanello M, Tardivo S, Cataldi L, Fanos V, Biban P, Malerba G. Genetic susceptibility to renal scar formation after urinary tract infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis of candidate gene polymorphisms. Pediatr Nephrol 2011; 26(7): 1017-29.
[70]
Hudson A, Romao RLP, MacLellan D. Urinary tract infection in children. CMAJ 2017; 189(16)E608
[71]
Fitzgerald A, Mori R, Lakhanpaul M, Tullus K. Antibiotics for treating lower urinary tract infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; (8): CD006857
[72]
Afzal N, Qadir M, Qureshi S, Ali R, Ahmed S, Ahmad K. Urinary tract infection presenting as jaundice in neonates. J Pak Med Assoc 2012; 62(7): 735-7.
[73]
Shahian M, Rashtian P, Kalani M. Unexplained neonatal jaundice as an early diagnostic sign of urinary tract infection. Int J Infect Dis 2012; 16(7): e487-90.
[74]
Gauthier M, Gouin S, Phan V, Gravel J. Association of malodorous urine with urinary tract infection in children aged 1 to 36 months. Pediatrics 2012; 129(5): 885-90.
[75]
Robson WL, Leung AK. Scarring is the central issue in urinary tract infection, not vesicoureteral reflux. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2001; 40(5): 302-3.
[76]
Robson WL, Leung AK, Van Howe R. Primary and secondary nocturnal enuresis: similarities in presentation. Pediatrics 2005; 115(4): 956-9.
[77]
Shaikh N, Hoberman A. Urinary tract infections in infants older than one month and young children: Clinical features and diagnosis.In: Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA.. (Accessed on August 10, 2018)
[78]
Verliat-Guinaud J, Blanc P, Garnier F, Gajdos V, Guigonis V. A midstream urine collector is not a good alternative to a sterile collection method during the diagnosis of urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatr 2015; 104(9): e395-400.
[79]
Robinson JL, Le Saux N. Management of urinary tract infections in children in an era of increasing antimicrobial resistance. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2016; 14(9): 809-16.
[80]
Vaillancourt S, McGillivray D, Zhang X, Kramer MS. To clean or not to clean: Effect on contamination rates in midstream urine collections in toilet-trained children. Pediatrics 2007; 119(6): e1288-93.
[81]
Roberts KB. Subcommittee on Urinary Tract Infection, Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management, Urinary tract infection: Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of the initial UTI in febrile infants and children 2 to 24 months. Pediatrics 2011; 128(3): 595-610.
[82]
Subcommittee On Urinary Tract Infection. Reaffirmation of AAP clinical practice guideline: The diagnosis and management of the initial urinary tract infection in febrile infants and young children 2-24 months of age. Pediatrics 2016; 138(6)e20163026
[83]
Ammenti A, Cataldi L, Chimenz R, Fanos V, La Manna A, Marra G, et al. Italian Society of Pediatric Nephrology. Febrile urinary tract infections in young children: Recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Acta Paediatr 2012; 101(5): 451-7.
[84]
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Urinary tract infection in children: Diagnosis, treatment and long-term management https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg54/evidence/full-guideline-pdf-196566877 (Accessed on: August 12, 2018)
[85]
Williams GJ, Hodson EH, Isaacs D, Craig JC. Diagnosis and management of urinary tract infection in children. J Paediatr Child Health 2012; 48(4): 296-301.
[86]
Yamasaki Y, Uemura O, Nagai T, Yamakawa S, Hibi Y, Yamamoto M, et al. Pitfalls of diagnosing urinary tract infection in infants and young children. Pediatr Int 2017; 59(7): 786-92.
[87]
Baumer JH, Jones RW. Urinary tract infection in children, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 2007; 92(6): 189-92.
[88]
Ma JF, Shortliffe LM. Urinary tract infection in children: Etiology and epidemiology. Urol Clin North Am 2004; 31(3): 517-26.
[89]
Bonny AE, Brouhard BH. Urinary tract infections among adolescents. Adolesc Med 2005; 16(1): 149-61.
[90]
Williams GJ, Macaskill P, Chan SF, Turner RM, Hodson E, Craig JC. Absolute and relative accuracy of rapid urine tests for urinary tract infection in children: A meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10(4): 240-50.
[91]
Reardon JM, Carstairs KL, Rudinsky SL, Simon LV, Riffenburgh RH, Tanen DA. Urinalysis is not reliable to detect a urinary tract infection in febrile infants presenting to the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2009; 27(8): 930-2.
[92]
Glissmeyer EW, Korgenski EK, Wilkes J, Schunk JE, Sheng X, Blaschke AJ, et al. Dipstick screening for urinary tract infection in febrile infants. Pediatrics 2014; 133(5): e1121-7.
[93]
Wald E. Urinary tract infections in infants and children: A comprehensive overview. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004; 16(1): 85-8.
[94]
Zhang H, Yang J, Lin L, Huo B, Dai H, He Y. Diagnostic value of serum procalcitonin for acute pyelonephritis in infants and children with urinary tract infections: An updated meta-analysis. World J Urol 2016; 34(3): 431-41.
[95]
Leroy S, Romanello C, Galetto-Lacour A, Smolkin V, Korczowski B, Rodrigo C, et al. Procalcitonin to reduce the number of unnecessary cystographies in children with a urinary tract infection: A European validation study. J Pediatr 2007; 150(1): 89-95.
[96]
Shaikh N, Borrell JL, Evron J, Leeflang MM. Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 1CD009185
[97]
Zaffanello M, Brugnara M, Franchini M, Fanos V. Is serum procalcitonin able to predict long-term kidney morbidity from urinary tract infections in children? Clin Chem Lab Med 2008; 46(10): 1358-63.
[98]
Riccabona M. Imaging in childhood urinary tract infection. Radiol Med 2016; 121(5): 391-401.
[99]
Enikeev DV, Glybochko P, Alyaev Y, Enikeev M, Rapoport L. Imaging technologies in the diagnosis and treatment of acute pyelonephritis. Urologia 2017; 84(3): 179-84.
[100]
Biassoni L, Chippington S. Imaging in urinary tract infections: current strategies and new trends. Semin Nucl Med 2008; 38(1): 56-66.
[101]
Blumenthal I. Vesicoureteric reflux and urinary tract infection in children. Postgrad Med J 2006; 82(963): 31-5.
[102]
Awais M, Rehman A, Zaman MU, Nadeem N. Recurrent urinary tract infections in young children: role of DMSA scintigraphy in detecting vesicoureteric reflux. Pediatr Radiol 2015; 45(1): 62-8.
[103]
Johnson EK, Malhotra NR, Shannon R, Jacobson DL, Green J, Rigsby CK, et al. Urinary tract infection after voiding cystourethrogram. J Pediatr Urol 2017; 13(4): 384e1-e7.
[104]
Marks SD, Gordon I, Tullus K. Imaging in childhood urinary tract infections: Time to reduce investigations. Pediatr Nephrol 2008; 23(1): 9-17.
[105]
Swerkersson S, Jodal U, Åhrén C, Sixt R, Stokland E, Hansson S. Urinary tract infection in infants: the significance of low bacterial count. Pediatr Nephrol 2016; 31(2): 239-45.
[106]
Bulum B, Özçakar ZB, Kavaz A, Hüseynova M, Ekim M, Yalçinkaya F. Lower urinary tract dysfunction is frequently seen in urinary tract infections in children and is often associated with reduced quality of life. Acta Paediatr 2014; 103(10): e454-8.
[107]
Wagenlehner F, Wullt B, Ballarini S, Zingg D, Naber KG. Social and economic burden of recurrent urinary tract infections and quality of life: A patient web-based study (GESPRIT). Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res 2018; 18(1): 107-17.
[108]
Rosen JM, Kriegermeier A, Adams PN, Klumpp DJ, Saps M. Urinary tract infection in infancy is a risk factor for chronic abdominal pain in childhood. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2015; 60(2): 14-216.
[109]
Megged O. Bacteremic vs. nonbacteremic urinary tract infection in children. Am J Emerg Med 2017; 35(1): 36-8.
[110]
Mohseny AB, van Velze V, Steggerda SJ, Smits-Wintjens VEHJ, Bekker V, Lopriore E. Late-onset sepsis due to urinary tract infection in very preterm neonates is not uncommon. Eur J Pediatr 2018; 177(1): 33-8.
[111]
Leung AK, Robson WL. Febrile seizures. J Pediatr Health Care 2007; 21(4): 250-5.
[112]
Leung AK, Hon KL, Leung TN. Febrile seizures: An overview. Drugs Context 2018; 7212536
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7573/dic.212536]
[113]
Milani GP, Grava A, Bianchetti MG, Lava SAG. Dell”Era L, Teatini T, Fossali EF. Electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities in infants with community-acquired acute pyelonephritis: Prospective cross-sectional study. Nephron 2017; 137(2): 99-104.
[114]
Karavanaki KA, Soldatou A, Koufadaki AM, Tsentidis C, Haliotis FA, Stefanidis CJ. Delayed treatment of the first febrile urinary tract infection in early childhood increased the risk of renal scarring. Acta Paediatr 2017; 106(1): 149-54.
[115]
Shaikh N, Ewing AL, Bhatnagar S, Hoberman A. Risk of renal scarring in children with a first urinary tract infection: A systematic review. Pediatrics 2010; 126(6): 1084-91.
[116]
Jackson MA, Schutze GE. Committee On Infectious Diseases. The use of systemic and topical fluoroquinolones. Pediatrics 2016; 138(5)e20162706
[117]
Leung AK, Chan PY, Cho HY. Constipation in children. Am Fam Physician 1996; 54(2): 611-8.
[118]
Hellerstein S. Acute urinary tract infection: Evaluation and treatment. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006; 18(2): 134-8.
[119]
Delbet JD, Lorrot M, Ulinski T. An update on new antibiotic prophylaxis and treatment for urinary tract infections in children. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2017; 18(15): 1619-25.
[120]
Palazzi DL, Campbell JR. Acute infectious cystitis: Management and prognosis in children older than two years and adolescents. In: Post TW, ed UpToDate Waltham, MA . (Accessed on August 10, 2018)
[121]
Hanna-Wakim RH, Ghanem ST, El Helou MW, Khafaja SA, Shaker RA, Hassan SA, et al. Epidemiology and characteristics of urinary tract infections in children and adolescents. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5: 45-9.
[122]
Michael M, Hodson EM, Craig JC, Martin S, Moyer VA. Short versus standard duration oral antibiotic therapy for acute urinary tract infection in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; (1): CD003966
[123]
Hodson EM, Willis NS, Craig JC. Antibiotics for acute pyelonephritis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (4): CD00377
[124]
Strohmeier Y, Hodson EM, Willis NS, Webster AC, Craig JC. Antibiotics for acute pyelonephritis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (7): CD003772
[125]
Wang A, Nizran P, Malone MA, Riley T. Urinary tract infections. Prim Care 2013; 40(3): 687-706.
[126]
Sweazy J, Sweazy S. Pharmaceutical composition and method for the treatment of urinary tract infections. US20170232011 2017.
[127]
Sakulchit T, Goldman RD. Corticosteroids for renal scar prevention in children with acute pyelonephritis. Can Fam Physician 2017; 63(4): 286-7.
[128]
Sharifian M, Anvaripour N, Karimi A, Fahimzad A, Mohkam M, Dalirani R, et al. The role of dexamethasone on decreasing urinary cytokines in children with acute pyelonephritis. Pediatr Nephrol 2008; 23(9): 1511-6.
[129]
Huang YY, Chen MJ, Chiu NT, Chou HH, Lin KY, Chiou YY. Adjunctive oral methylprednisolone in pediatric acute pyelonephritis alleviates renal scarring. Pediatrics 2011; 128(3): e496-504.
[130]
Yousefichaijan P, Kahbazi M, Rasti S, Rafeie M, Sharafkhah M. Vitamin E as adjuvant treatment for urinary tract infection in girls with acute pyelonephritis. Iran J Kidney Dis 2015; 9(2): 97-104.
[131]
Yousefichaijan P, Naziri M, Taherahmadi H, Kahbazi M, Tabaei A. Zinc Supplementation in treatment of children with urinary tract infection. Iran J Kidney Dis 2016; 10(4): 213-6.
[132]
Shaikh N, Hoberman A, Keren R, Gotman N, Docimo SG, Mathews R, et al. Recurrent urinary tract infections in children with bladder and bowel dysfunction. Pediatrics 2016; 137(1)e20152982
[133]
Shaikh N, Mattoo TK, Keren R, Ivanova A, Cui G, Moxey-Mims M, et al. Early Antibiotic treatment for pediatric febrile urinary tract infection and renal scarring. JAMA Pediatr 2016; 170(9): 848-54.
[134]
Robinson JL, Finlay JC, Lang ME, Bortolussi R. Canadian Paediatric Society, Community Paediatrics Committee, Infectious Diseases and Immunization Committee. Prophylactic antibiotics for children with recurrent urinary tract infections. Paediatr Child Health 2015; 20(1): 45-51.
[135]
RIVUR Trial Investigators. Hoberman A, Greenfield SP, Mattoo TK, Keren R,, Mathews R, et al. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for children with vesicoureteral reflux. N Engl J Med 2014; 370(25): 2367-76.
[136]
Roussey-Kesler G, Gadjos V, Idres N, Horen b, Ichay L, LeClair MD, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection in children with low grade vesicoureteral reflux: results from a prospective randomized study. J Urol 2008; 179: 674-9.
[137]
Hewitt IK, Pennesi M, Morello W, Ronfani L, Montini G. Antibiotic prophylaxis for urinary tract infection-related renal scarring: A systematic review. Pediatrics 2017; 139(5)e20163145
[138]
Moreno G, Corbalán J, Peñaloza B, Pantoja T. Topical corticosteroids for treating phimosis in boys. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (9): CD008973
[139]
Goldman RD. Cranberry juice for urinary tract infection in children. Can Fam Physician 2012; 58(4): 398-401.
[140]
Ledda A, Belcaro G, Dugall M, et al. Highly standardized cranberry extract supplementation (Anthocran®) as prophylaxis in young healthy subjects with recurrent urinary tract infections. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2017; 21(2): 389-93.
[141]
Fu Z, Liska D, Talan D, Chung M. Cranberry reduces the risk of urinary tract infection recurrence in otherwise healthy women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Nutr 2017; 147(12): 2282-8.
[142]
Lee SJ, Cha J, Lee JW. Probiotics prophylaxis in pyelonephritis infants with normal urinary tracts. World J Pediatr 2016; 12(4): 425-9.
[143]
Schwenger EM, Tejani AM, Loewen PS. Probiotics for preventing urinary tract infections in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (12): CD008772 Dec 23
[144]
Hannula A, Perhomaa M, Venhola M, Pokka T, Renko M, Uhari M. Long-term follow-up of patients after childhood urinary tract infection. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012; 166(12): 1117-22.
[145]
Herráez O, Asencio MA, Carranza R, Jarabo MM, Huertas M, Redondo O, et al. Sysmex UF-1000i flow cytometer to screen urinary tract infections: The URISCAM multicentre study. Lett Appl Microbiol 2018; 66(3): 175-81.
[146]
Tessari A, Osti N, Scarin M. Screening of presumptive urinary tract infections by the automated urine sediment analyser sediMAX. Clin Chem Lab Med 2015; 53(Suppl. 2): S1503-8.
[147]
Lubell TR, Barasch JM, Xu K, Ieni M, Cabrera KI, Dayan PS. Urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. Pediatrics 2017; 140(6)e20171090
[148]
Nickavar A, Safaeian B, Valavi E, Moradpour F. Validity of neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocaline as a biomarker for diagnosis of children with acute pyelonephritis. Urol J 2016; 13(5): 2860-3.
[149]
Valdimarsson S, Jodal U, Barregård L, Hansson S. Urine neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and other biomarkers in infants with urinary tract infection and in febrile controls. Pediatr Nephrol 2017; 32(11): 2079-87.
[150]
Barasch J, Paragas N. NGAL and urinary tract infection. US20160136237 2016.
[151]
Kim BK, Yim HE, Yoo KH. Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin: A marker of acute pyelonephritis in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2017; 32(3): 477-84.
[152]
Seo WH, Nam SW, Lee EH, Je BK, Yim HE, Choi BM. A rapid plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin assay for diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in infants with acute febrile urinary tract infections: A preliminary study. Eur J Pediatr 2014; 173(2): 229-32.
[153]
Sim JH, Yim HE, Choi BM, Lee JH, Yoo KH. Plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin predicts acute pyelonephritis in children with urinary tract infections. Pediatr Res 2015; 78(1): 48-55.
[154]
Björck L, Christensson B, Herwald H, Linder A, Åkesson P. Diagnostic method for urinary tract infection. US20160252529 2016.
[155]
Schwaderer A, Hains D, Spencer JD, Watson J. Urinary tract infection biomarkers. WO2016161413 2016.
[156]
Kim HH, Chung MH, Bin JH, Cho KS, Lee J, Suh JS. Urinary YKL-40 as a candidate biomarker for febrile urinary tract infection in young children. Ann Lab Med 2018; 38(1): 39-45.
[157]
Lertdumrongluk K, Thongmee T, Kerr SJ, Theamboonlers A, Poovorawan Y, Rianthavorn P. Diagnostic accuracy of urine heparin binding protein for pediatric acute pyelonephritis. Eur J Pediatr 2015; 174(1): 43-8.
[158]
Watson JR, Hains DS, Cohen DM, Spencer JD, Kline JM, Yin H, et al. Evaluation of novel urinary tract infection biomarkers in children. Pediatr Res 2016; 79(6): 934-9.
[159]
Kitao T, Kimata T, Yamanouchi S, Kato S, Tsuji S, Kaneko K. Urinary biomarkers for screening for renal scarring in children with febrile urinary tract infection: Pilot study. J Urol 2015; 194(3): 766-71.
[160]
Lee HE, Kim DK, Kang HK, Park K. The diagnosis of febrile urinary tract infection in children may be facilitated by urinary biomarkers. Pediatr Nephrol 2015; 30(1): 123-30.
[161]
Swiss GF, Moriarty RM, Pariza R, White D. Detection of urinary tract infections. US20180113128 2018.
[162]
Aoyagi J, Odaka J, Kuroiwa Y, Nakashima N, Ito T, Saito T, et al. Utility of non-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to detect acute pyelonephritis. Pediatr Int 2014; 56(3): e4-6.
[163]
Aoyagi J, Kanai T, Odaka J, Ito T, Saito T, Betsui H, et al. Non-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging versus renal scintigraphy in acute pyelonephritis. Pediatr Int (Roma) 2018; 60(2): 200-3.
[164]
Kim HK, O’Hara S, Je BK, Kraus SJ, Horn P. Feasibility of superb microvascular imaging to detect high-grade vesicoureteral reflux in children with urinary tract infection. Eur Radiol 2018; 28(1): 66-73.
[165]
Abe Y, Inan-Erdogan I, Fukuchi K, Wakabayashi H, Ogawa Y, Hibino S, et al. Efficacy of non-carbapenem antibiotics for pediatric patients with first febrile urinary tract infection due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli. J Infect Chemother 2017; 23(8): 517-22.
[166]
Poey N, Madhi F, Biscardi S, Béchet S, Cohen R. Aminoglycosides monotherapy as first-line treatment for febrile urinary tract infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2017; 36(11): 1104-7.
[167]
Yoon YK, Kim JH, Sohn JW, Yang KS, Kim MJ. Role of piperacillin/tazobactam as a carbapenem-sparing antibiotic for treatment of acute pyelonephritis due to extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2017; 49(4): 410-5.
[168]
Loutit JS, Dudley MN, Morgan EE, Fusaro K, Griffith DC, Lomovskaya O. Methods of treating bacterial infections. WO2018129479 2018.
[169]
Bentley C, Fischer C, Lückermann M, Vente A, Wohlert S. Finafloxacin for use in the treatment of urinary tract infections. US20170354661 2017.
[170]
Shapland H, Glickman S, Krueger C, Howell AB, Reed JD. Medical composition for treating urinary tract infection (UTI). US20180000853 2018.
[171]
Raduti C. Treatment of urinary tract infection. US20170173058 2017.
[172]
Bijno D, Di Vincenzo C, Lusenti E, Martina A, Petrelli R. Composition for the treatment and prevention of urinary tract infections. US20170232051 2017.
[173]
Benito-Villalvilla C, Cirauqui C, Diez-Rivero CM, Casanovas M, Subiza JL, Palomares O. MV140, a sublingual polyvalent bacterial preparation to treat recurrent urinary tract infections, licenses human dendritic cells for generating Th1, Th17, and IL-10 responses via Syk and MyD88. Mucosal Immunol 2017; 10(4): 924-35.
[174]
Lorenzo-Gómez MF, Padilla-Fernández B, García-Cenador MB, Virseda-Rodríguez ÁJ, Martín-García I, Sánchez-Escudero A, et al. Comparison of sublingual therapeutic vaccine with antibiotics for the prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5: 50-8.
[175]
Yang B, Foley S. First experience in the UK of treating women with recurrent urinary tract infections with the bacterial vaccine Uromune®. BJU Int 2018; 121(2): 289-92.
[176]
Magistro G, Stief CG. Vaccine development for urinary tract infections: Where do we stand? Eur Urol Focus 2019; 5(1): 39-41.
[177]
Taha Neto KA, Nogueira Castilho L, Reis LO. Oral vaccine (OM-89) in the recurrent urinary tract infection prophylaxis: A realistic systematic review with meta-analysis. Actas Urol Esp 2016; 40(4): 203-8.
[178]
Huttner A, Hatz C, van den Dobbelsteen G, Abbanat D, Hornacek A, Frölich R, et al. Safety, immunogenicity, and preliminary clinical efficacy of a vaccine against extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli in women with a history of recurrent urinary tract infection: A randomised, single-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 1b trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2017; 17(5): 528-37.
[179]
Beerepoot M, Geerlings S. Non-antibiotic prophylaxis for urinary tract infections. Pathogens 2016; 5(2)pii: E36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens5020036]
[180]
Hopkins WJ, Elkahwaji J, Beierle LM, Leverson GE, Uehling DT. Vaginal mucosal vaccine for recurrent urinary tract infections in women: Results of a Phase 2 clinical trial. J Urol 2007; 177(4): 1349-53.
[181]
Uehling DT, Hopkins WJ, Balish E, Xing Y, Heisey DM. Vaginal mucosal immunization for recurrent urinary tract infection: Phase II clinical trial. J Urol 1997; 157(6): 2049-52.
[182]
Uehling DT, Hopkins WJ, Elkahwaji JE, Schmidt DM, Leverson GE. Phase 2 clinical trial of a vaginal mucosal vaccine for urinary tract infections. J Urol 2003; 170(3): 867-9.
[183]
Kochiashvili D, Khuskivadze A, Kochiashvili G, Koberidze G, Kvakhajelidze V. Role of the bacterial vaccine Solco-Urovac® in treatment and prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections of bacterial origin. Georgian Med News 2014; (231): 11-6.
[184]
Eldridge G, Martin SM. omposition of vaccines and adjuvants and methods for the treatment of urinary tract infections. US20150086592 & US20180028648 (2018).