Generic placeholder image

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Author(s): Tony Hangan, Geir Bjorklund* and Sergiu Chirila

DOI: 10.2174/0109298673269343231025070053

DownloadDownload PDF Flyer Cite As
Exploring the Potential Link between Aluminum-Containing Deodorants/Antiperspirants and Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

Page: [417 - 433] Pages: 17

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Explore Articles
About Journal
For Authors
For Editors
For Reviewers

Abstract

The potential association between aluminum-containing deodorants/antiperspirants and breast cancer has been investigated and debated. This paper comprehensively analyzes existing literature to examine the evidence and provide insights into this relationship. This comprehensive review discusses aspects related to the absorption and distribution of aluminum compounds, its effects on the induction of oxidative stress, the estrogenic activity of aluminum, and potential disruption of hormonal pathways, and the potential role in breast cancer induction. Currently, available research, consisting of epidemiological studies as well as clinical trials, together with meta-analyses and previously published reviews conducted on identifying the relationship between aluminum-containing deodorants/antiperspirants and the risk of breast cancer were also analyzed and discussed. Societal factors, personal hygiene considerations, and lifestyle changes contribute to the increased usage of antiperspirants, but they do not establish a direct causal connection with breast cancer. Further research employing larger-scale studies and rigorous methodologies must validate the existing findings and explore the underlying mechanisms involved. Continued multidisciplinary research efforts and collaboration between researchers, regulatory bodies, and public health authorities are vital to developing a more definitive understanding of this complex topic.

Keywords: Aluminum, deodorants, antiperspirants, breast cancer, clinical trials, genomic instability.

[1]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccine Safety - Adjuvants. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/concerns/adjuvants.html
[2]
Sanajou S, Şahin G, Baydar T. Aluminium in cosmetics and personal care products. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 41(11): 1704-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.4228] [PMID: 34396567]
[3]
Fekete V, Vandevijvere S, Bolle F, Van Loco J. Estimation of dietary aluminum exposure of the Belgian adult population: Evaluation of contribution of food and kitchenware. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 55: 602-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.01.059] [PMID: 23402858]
[4]
Ding G, Jing Y, Han Y, et al. Monitoring of aluminum content in food and assessment of dietary exposure of residents in North China. Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill 2021; 14(3): 177-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2021.1912191] [PMID: 34362289]
[5]
Willhite CC, Karyakina NA, Yokel RA, et al. Systematic review of potential health risks posed by pharmaceutical, occupational and consumer exposures to metallic and nanoscale aluminum, aluminum oxides, aluminum hydroxide and its soluble salts. Crit Rev Toxicol 2014; 44(Suppl 4): 1-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10408444.2014.934439]
[6]
Mitkus RJ, King DB, Hess MA, Forshee RA, Walderhaug MO. Updated aluminum pharmacokinetics following infant exposures through diet and vaccination. Vaccine 2011; 29(51): 9538-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.124] [PMID: 22001122]
[7]
McConaghy JR, Fosselman D. Hyperhidrosis: Management options. Am Fam Physician 2018; 97(11): 729-34.
[PMID: 30215934]
[8]
Barel AO, Paye M, Maibach HI. Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology. (4th ed..), United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis 2014.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b16716]
[9]
Ermenlieva N, Georgieva E, Milev M. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of antiperspirant cosmetic products. J IMAB - Annual Proceeding (Scientific Papers) 2020; 26(4): 3374-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5272/jimab.2020264.3374]
[10]
Shahtalebi MA, Ghanadian M, Farzan A, Shiri N, Shokri D, Fatemi SA. Deodorant effects of a sage extract stick: Antibacterial activity and sensory evaluation of axillary deodorancy. J Res Med Sci 2013; 18(10): 833-9.
[PMID: 24497852]
[11]
Klotz K, Weistenhöfer W, Neff F, Hartwig A, van Thriel C, Drexler H. The health effects of aluminum exposure. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2017; 114(39): 653-9.
[PMID: 29034866]
[12]
Benohanian A. Antiperspirants and deodorants. Clin Dermatol 2001; 19(4): 398-405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0738-081X(01)00192-4] [PMID: 11535380]
[13]
Boyd C. Which chemicals make deodorants and antiperspirants work? 2014. Available from: https://www.chemservice.com/news/2014/08/which-chemicals-make-deodorants-and-antiperspirants-work/
[14]
Kumar M, Myagmardoloonjin B, Keshari S, Negari IP, Huang CM. 5-methyl furfural reduces the production of malodors by inhibiting sodium l-lactate fermentation of Staphylococcus epidermidis: Implication for deodorants targeting the fermenting skin microbiome. Microorganisms 2019; 7(8): 239.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7080239] [PMID: 31387211]
[15]
Flarend R. Aluminium and Alzheimer’s Disease. Amsterdam: Elsevier 2001; pp. 75-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-044450811-9/50029-X]
[16]
Baumann BC, Zeng C, Freedman GM, et al. Avoiding antiperspirants during breast radiation therapy: Onco-myth or sound advice? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2016; 96(2): E18-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2016.06.640]
[17]
Darbre PD. Environmental oestrogens, cosmetics and breast cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 20(1): 121-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2005.09.007] [PMID: 16522524]
[18]
Darbre PD. Underarm cosmetics are a cause of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 2001; 10(5): 389-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00008469-200110000-00002] [PMID: 11711753]
[19]
Jalili P, Huet S, Lanceleur R, et al. Genotoxicity of aluminum and aluminum oxide nanomaterials in rats following oral exposure. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2020; 10(2): 305.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10020305] [PMID: 32053952]
[20]
Rajiv S, Jerobin J, Saranya V, et al. Comparative cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of cobalt (II, III) oxide, iron (III) oxide, silicon dioxide, and aluminum oxide nanoparticles on human lymphocytes in vitro. Hum Exp Toxicol 2016; 35(2): 170-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327115579208] [PMID: 25829403]
[21]
Lima PDL, Vasconcellos MC, Montenegro RC, et al. Genotoxic effects of aluminum, iron and manganese in human cells and experimental systems: A review of the literature. Hum Exp Toxicol 2011; 30(10): 1435-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327110396531] [PMID: 21247993]
[22]
Darbre, P.D. Aluminium and the human breast aluminium et sein humain. In: Morphologie. Elsevier Masson SAS, 2016, 100(329), pp. 65-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.morpho.2016.02.001]
[23]
Exley C, Charles LM, Barr L, Martin C, Polwart A, Darbre PD. Aluminium in human breast tissue. J Inorg Biochem 2007; 101(9): 1344-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2007.06.005] [PMID: 17629949]
[24]
Sappino AP, Buser R, Lesne L, et al. Aluminium chloride promotes anchorage-independent growth in human mammary epithelial cells. J Appl Toxicol 2012; 32(3): 233-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.1793] [PMID: 22223356]
[25]
Mandriota SJ, Tenan M, Ferrari P, Sappino AP. Aluminium chloride promotes tumorigenesis and metastasis in normal murine mammary gland epithelial cells. Int J Cancer 2016; 139(12): 2781-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.30393] [PMID: 27541736]
[26]
Mannello F, Tonti GA, Darbre PD. Concentration of aluminium in breast cyst fluids collected from women affected by gross cystic breast disease. J Appl Toxicol 2009; 29(1): 1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.1384] [PMID: 18785682]
[27]
Darbre PD, Bakir A, Iskakova E. Effect of aluminium on migratory and invasive properties of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells in culture. J Inorg Biochem 2013; 128: 245-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.07.004] [PMID: 23896199]
[28]
Darbre PD. Metalloestrogens: An emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast. J Appl Toxicol 2006; 26(3): 191-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.1135] [PMID: 16489580]
[29]
Samavat H, Kurzer MS. Estrogen metabolism and breast cancer. Cancer Lett 2015; 356(2) (2 Pt A): 231-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2014.04.018] [PMID: 24784887]
[30]
Soysal SD, Tzankov A, Muenst SE. Role of the tumor microenvironment in breast cancer. Pathobiology 2015; 82(3-4): 142-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000430499] [PMID: 26330355]
[31]
Yan X, Xie Y, Yang F, et al. Comprehensive description of the current breast cancer microenvironment advancements via single-cell analysis. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2021; 40(1): 142.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13046-021-01949-z] [PMID: 33906694]
[32]
Darbre PD, Aljarrah A, Miller WR, Coldham NG, Sauer MJ, Pope GS. Concentrations of parabens in human breast tumours. J Appl Toxicol 2004; 24(1): 5-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.958] [PMID: 14745841]
[33]
Mirick DK, Davis S, Thomas DB. Antiperspirant use and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94(20): 1578-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/94.20.1578] [PMID: 12381712]
[34]
Fakri S, Al Azzawi A, Al Tawil N. Antiperspirant use as a risk factor for breast cancer in Iraq. East Mediterr Health J 2006; 12(3-4): 478-82.
[35]
McGrath KG. An earlier age of breast cancer diagnosis related to more frequent use of antiperspirants/deodorants and underarm shaving. Eur J Cancer Prev 2003; 12(6): 479-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00008469-200312000-00006] [PMID: 14639125]
[36]
Burch A, Goodman DA. A pilot survey of radiation doses received in the United Kingdom Breast Screening Programme. Br J Radiol 1998; 71(845): 517-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1259/bjr.71.845.9691897] [PMID: 9691897]
[37]
Kim S, Lee S. Effects of 20% aluminum chloride in axillary hyperhidrosis not accompanying osmidrosis. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2005; 37(4): 272-4.
[38]
Sakhawoth Y, Dupire J, Leonforte F, et al. Real time observation of the interaction between aluminium salts and sweat under microfluidic conditions. Sci Rep 2021; 11(1): 6376.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85691-8] [PMID: 33737654]
[39]
de Ligt R, van Duijn E, Grossouw D, et al. Assessment of dermal absorption of aluminum from a representative antiperspirant formulation using a 26Al microtracer approach. Clin Transl Sci 2018; 11(6): 573-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cts.12579] [PMID: 30052317]
[40]
Mesurolle B, Ceccarelli J, Karp I, Sun S, El-Khoury M. Effects of antiperspirant aluminum percent composition and mode of application on mock microcalcifications in mammography. Eur J Radiol 2014; 83(2): 279-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2013.10.015] [PMID: 24262976]
[41]
Flarend R, Bin T, Elmore D, Hem SL. A preliminary study of the dermal absorption of aluminium from antiperspirants using aluminium-26. Food Chem Toxicol 2001; 39(2): 163-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(00)00118-6] [PMID: 11267710]
[42]
Exley C. Aluminum in antiperspirants: More than just skin deep. Am J Med 2004; 117(12): 969-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.11.003] [PMID: 15629740]
[43]
Rahman H, Skillen AW, Ward MK, Channon SM, Kerr DN. Affinity of the aluminium binding protein. Int J Artif Organs 1986; 9(2): 93-6.
[PMID: 3699915]
[44]
Taylor GJ, McDonald-Stephens JL, Hunter DB, et al. Direct measurement of aluminum uptake and distribution in single cells of Chara corallina. Plant Physiol 2000; 123(3): 987-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.123.3.987] [PMID: 10889247]
[45]
Exley C, Mold MJ. The binding, transport and fate of aluminium in biological cells. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015; 30: 90-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.11.002] [PMID: 25498314]
[46]
Mannello F, Ligi D, Canale M. Aluminium, carbonyls and cytokines in human nipple aspirate fluids: Possible relationship between inflammation, oxidative stress and breast cancer microenvironment. J Inorg Biochem 2013; 128: 250-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.07.003] [PMID: 23916117]
[47]
Yamamoto Y, Kobayashi Y, Devi SR, Rikiishi S, Matsumoto H. Aluminum toxicity is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and the production of reactive oxygen species in plant cells. Plant Physiol 2002; 128(1): 63-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.010417] [PMID: 11788753]
[48]
Babourina O, Ozturk L, Cakmak I, Rengel Z. Reactive oxygen species production in wheat roots is not linked with changes in h fluxes during acidic and aluminium stresses. Plant Signal Behav 2006; 1(2): 70-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/psb.1.2.2591] [PMID: 19521479]
[49]
Abou-Seif M A M. Oxidative stress of vanadium-mediated oxygen free radical generation stimulated by aluminium on human erythrocytes. Ann Clin Biochem 1998; 35(2): 254-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000456329803500209] [PMID: 9547897]
[50]
Akhtar MJ, Alhadlaq HA, Alshamsan A, Majeed Khan MA, Ahamed M. Aluminum doping tunes band gap energy level as well as oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles in MCF-7 cells. Sci Rep 2015; 5(1): 13876.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep13876] [PMID: 26347142]
[51]
Bae H, Park S, Yang C, Song G, Lim W. Disruption of endoplasmic reticulum and ROS production in human ovarian cancer by campesterol. Antioxidants 2021; 10(3): 379.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox10030379] [PMID: 33802602]
[52]
Kim SH, Kim KY, Yu SN, et al. Monensin Induces PC-3 Prostate Cancer Cell Apoptosis via ROS Production and Ca2+ Homeostasis Disruption. Anticancer Res 2016; 36(11): 5835-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.11168] [PMID: 27793906]
[53]
Hecht F, Pessoa CF, Gentile LB, Rosenthal D, Carvalho DP, Fortunato RS. The role of oxidative stress on breast cancer development and therapy. Tumour Biol 2016; 37(4): 4281-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13277-016-4873-9] [PMID: 26815507]
[54]
Linhart K, Bartsch H, Seitz HK. The role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytochrome P-450 2E1 in the generation of carcinogenic etheno-DNA adducts. Redox Biol 2014; 3: 56-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2014.08.009] [PMID: 25462066]
[55]
Jain AK, Samykutty A, Jackson CL, Thangaraju M, Browning DD. Curcumin inhibit PhIP induced cytotoxicity by inhibiting ROS production, DNA strand breaks and DNA adducts formation in MCF 10A cells. Cancer Res 2014; 74(19): p. 4106.
[56]
Gupta R, Munagala R, Vadhanam M, Nagarajan B, Ravoori S. DNA adduct accumulation during the course of human cervical cancer development, and during and after radiotherapy. Toxicol Lett 2009; 189: S27-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.06.045]
[57]
Tenan MR, Nicolle A, Moralli D, et al. Aluminum enters mammalian cells and destabilizes chromosome structure and number. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22(17): 9515.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22179515] [PMID: 34502420]
[58]
Marvibaigi M, Amini N, Supriyanto E, et al. Antioxidant activity and ROS-dependent apoptotic Effect of Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) danser methanol extract in human breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231. PLoS One 2016; 11(7): e0158942.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158942] [PMID: 27410459]
[59]
Mencalha A, Victorino VJ, Cecchini R, Panis C. Mapping oxidative changes in breast cancer: Understanding the basic to reach the clinics. Anticancer Res 2014; 34(3): 1127-40.
[PMID: 24596350]
[60]
Lee JD, Cai Q, Shu XO, Nechuta SJ. The role of biomarkers of oxidative stress in breast cancer risk and prognosis: A systematic review of the epidemiologic literature. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2017; 26(5): 467-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2016.5973] [PMID: 28151039]
[61]
Ragab Ali AR, Farouk O, Afify M, Attia A, Samanoudy A, Taalab Y. The role of oxidative stress in carcinogenesis induced by metals in breast cancer egyptian females sample at dakahlia governorate. J Environ Anal Toxicol 2014; 4: 2.
[62]
Niehoff NM, O’Brien KM, Keil AP, et al. Metals and breast cancer risk: A prospective study using toenail biomarkers. Am J Epidemiol 2021; 190(11): 2360-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab204] [PMID: 34268559]
[63]
Sengupta T, Ghosh S, Gaur T A, Nayak P. Dissimilar anxiety-like behavior in prepubertal and young adult female rats on acute exposure to aluminium. Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem 2021; 21(3): 187-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1871524922666211231095507] [PMID: 34970958]
[64]
Khadem R, Mahdi FC. The role of estrogen in breast cancer. Biomed Biotech Res J 2020; 4(4): 293-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/bbrj.bbrj_59_20]
[65]
Liu WJ, Zhao G, Zhang CY, et al. Comparison of the roles of estrogens and androgens in breast cancer and prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem 2020; 121(4): 2756-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcb.29515] [PMID: 31693255]
[66]
Song RXD, Zhang Z, Chen Y, Bao Y, Santen RJ. Estrogen signaling via a linear pathway involving insulin- like growth factor I receptor, matrix metalloproteinases, and epidermal growth factor receptor to activate mitogen-activated protein kinase in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Endocrinology 2007; 148(8): 4091-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2007-0240] [PMID: 17525128]
[67]
Khan MZI, Uzair M, Nazli A, Chen JZ. An overview on estrogen receptors signaling and its ligands in breast cancer. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 241: 114658.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114658] [PMID: 35964426]
[68]
Gorgogietas VA, Tsialtas I, Sotiriou N, et al. Potential interference of aluminum chlorohydrate with estrogen receptor signaling in breast cancer cells. J Mol Biochem 2018; 7(1): 1-13.
[PMID: 30148119]
[69]
Philippa DD. The potential for estrogen disrupting chemicals to contribute to migration, invasion and metastasis of human breast cancer cells. J Cancer Metastasis Treat 2019; 5: 58.
[70]
Eve L, Fervers B, Le Romancer M, Etienne-Selloum N. Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals and risk of breast cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(23): 9139.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21239139] [PMID: 33266302]
[71]
Saha Roy S, Vadlamudi RK. Role of estrogen receptor signaling in breast cancer metastasis. Int J Breast Cancer 2012; 2012: 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/654698] [PMID: 22295247]
[72]
Clusan L, Ferrière F, Flouriot G, Pakdel F. A basic review on estrogen receptor signaling pathways in breast cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24(7): 6834.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076834] [PMID: 37047814]
[73]
You CP, Leung MH, Tsang WC, Khoo US, Tsoi H. Androgen receptor as an emerging feasible biomarker for breast cancer. Biomolecules 2022; 12(1): 72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom12010072] [PMID: 35053220]
[74]
Chiodo C, Morelli C, Cavaliere F, Sisci D, Lanzino M. The other side of the coin: May androgens have a role in breast cancer risk? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23(1): 424.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23010424] [PMID: 35008851]
[75]
Belbasis L, Bellou V. Introduction to Epidemiological Studies. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1793: 1-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7868-7_1] [PMID: 29876887]
[76]
Namer M, Luporsi E, Gligorov J, Lokiec F, Spielmann M. The use of deodorants/antiperspirants does not constitute a risk factor for breast cancer. Bull Cancer 2008; 95(9): 871-80.
[PMID: 18829420]
[77]
Allam MF. Breast cancer and deodorants/antiperspirants: A system review. Cent Eur J Public Health 2016; 24(3): 245-7. http://cejph.szu.cz/pdfs/cjp/2016/03/15.pdf
[78]
Moussaron A, Alexandre J, Chenard MP, Mathelin C, Reix N. Correlation between daily life aluminium exposure and breast cancer risk: A systematic review. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2023; 79: 127247.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2023.127247] [PMID: 37354712]
[79]
Linhart C, Talasz H, Morandi EM, et al. Use of underarm cosmetic products in relation to risk of breast cancer: A case-control study. EBioMedicine 2017; 21: 79-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.06.005] [PMID: 28629908]
[80]
Vaghar MI, Mousavi M. The relationship between use of aluminum-containing anti-perspirant and hair color with breast cancer. J Family Med Prim Care 2021; 10(1): 182-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1219_19] [PMID: 34017723]
[81]
Barranger E. Gynecologie Obstetrique et Fertilite. Elsevier Masson SAS 2016; 44: 673-4.
[82]
Darbre PD. Aluminium, antiperspirants and breast cancer. J Inorg Biochem 2005; 99(9): 1912-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2005.06.001] [PMID: 16045991]
[83]
Osto M, Farshchian M, Alnabolsi A, Smidi SA, Baiyasi M, Potts GA. Aluminum-containing antiperspirants are not associated with breast cancer. J Cosmet Dermatol 2022; 21(10): 5244-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jocd.14796] [PMID: 35073435]
[84]
National Cancer Institute.. Antiperspirants/Deodorants and Breast Cancer. 2016. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths/antiperspirants-fact-sheet
[85]
Rummel S, Hueman MT, Costantino N, Shriver CD, Ellsworth RE. Tumour location within the breast: Does tumour site have prognostic ability? Ecancermedicalscience 2015; 9: 552.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2015.552] [PMID: 26284116]
[86]
Kwei KA, Kung Y, Salari K, Holcomb IN, Pollack JR. Genomic instability in breast cancer: Pathogenesis and clinical implications. Mol Oncol 2010; 4(3): 255-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molonc.2010.04.001] [PMID: 20434415]
[87]
Théberge V, Harel F, Dagnault A. Use of axillary deodorant and effect on acute skin toxicity during radiotherapy for breast cancer: A prospective randomized noninferiority trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 75(4): 1048-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2008.12.046] [PMID: 19327906]
[88]
Chan RJ, Webster J, Chung B, Marquart L, Ahmed M, Garantziotis S. Prevention and treatment of acute radiation-induced skin reactions: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Cancer 2014; 14(1): 53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-53] [PMID: 24484999]
[89]
Pamphlett R, Satgunaseelan L, Kum Jew S, Doble PA, Bishop DP. Elemental bioimaging shows mercury and other toxic metals in normal breast tissue and in breast cancers. PLoS One 2020; 15(1): e0228226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228226] [PMID: 32004334]
[90]
Yuan CY, Lee YJ, Hsu GSW. Aluminum overload increases oxidative stress in four functional brain areas of neonatal rats. J Biomed Sci 2012; 19(1): 51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1423-0127-19-51] [PMID: 22613782]
[91]
Klaunig JE, Kamendulis LM, Hocevar BA. Oxidative stress and oxidative damage in carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 2010; 38(1): 96-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623309356453] [PMID: 20019356]
[92]
Chowra U, Yanase E, Koyama H, Panda SK. Aluminium-induced excessive ROS causes cellular damage and metabolic shifts in black gram Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Protoplasma 2017; 254(1): 293-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00709-016-0943-5] [PMID: 26769708]
[93]
Crisponi G, Fanni D, Gerosa C, et al. The meaning of aluminium exposure on human health and aluminium-related diseases. Biomol Concepts 2013; 4(1): 77-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bmc-2012-0045] [PMID: 25436567]
[94]
Asghar H, Ahmed T. Comparative study of time-dependent aluminum exposure and post-exposure recovery shows better improvement in synaptic changes and neuronal pathology in rat brain after short-term exposure. Neurochem Res 2023; 48: 2731-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11064-023-03936-6]
[95]
Mann CJ. Observational research methods. Research design II: Cohort, cross sectional, and case-control studies. Emerg Med J 2003; 20(1): 54-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/emj.20.1.54] [PMID: 12533370]
[96]
Rosenman R, Tennekoon V, Hill LG. Measuring bias in self-reported data. Int J Behav Healthc Res 2011; 2(4): 320-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJBHR.2011.043414] [PMID: 25383095]
[97]
Sun YS, Zhao Z, Yang ZN, et al. Risk factors and preventions of breast cancer. Int J Biol Sci 2017; 13(11): 1387-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.21635] [PMID: 29209143]
[98]
Alreshidi FS, Alharbi SH, Alrashedi SA, Alrashidi AG, Alshammeri KJK, Ahmed HG. Survey on knowledge and attitudes related to the relationship between smoking, alcohol, radiation, cosmetics use and risk of breast cancer in the northern Saudi Arabia. Am J Public Health Res 2017; 5: 147-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12691/ajphr-5-5-2]
[99]
Jones SC, Magee CA, Barrie LR, et al. Australian women’s perceptions of breast cancer risk factors and the risk of developing breast cancer. Womens Health Issues 2011; 21(5): 353-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2011.02.004] [PMID: 21565527]
[100]
Croijmans I, Beetsma D, Aarts H, Gortemaker I, Smeets M. The role of fragrance and self-esteem in perception of body odors and impressions of others. PLoS One 2021; 16(11): e0258773.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258773] [PMID: 34780484]
[101]
Laden K. Introduction ahd history of antiperspirants and deodorants. Antiperspirants and Deodorants. (2nd ed..). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press 1988; pp. 1-13.
[102]
Macdonald S, Cunningham Y, Patterson C, et al. Mass media and risk factors for cancer: The under-representation of age. BMC Public Health 2018; 18(1): 490.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5341-9] [PMID: 29695238]
[103]
Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology: organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS). 1995. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/9508274
[104]
European Commission. Opinion on the safety of aluminium in cosmetic products. 2014. Available From: https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-11/sccs_o_235.pdf
[105]
European Parliament. Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on cosmetic products (recast) (Text with EEA relevance). 2009. Available From: https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/47f167ec-b5db-4ec9-9d12-3d807bf3e526_en