Chitosan-based Nanomedicine in the Management of Age-related Macular
Degeneration: A Review

Swarupananda      Mukherjee; Dipanjan      Karati; Sudarshan      Singh; Bhupendra   G.   Prajapati
Abstract

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of permanent blindness globally. Due to the various obstacles, highly invasive intravitreal (IVT) injections are the primary method used to deliver medications to the tissues of the posterior eye. An utmost patientfriendly topical ocular delivery approach has been extensively researched in recent years. Mucoadhesive compositions extend precorneal residence time while reducing precorneal clearance. They increase the likelihood of adhesion to corneal and conjunctival surfaces and, as a result, allow for enhanced delivery to the posterior eye segment. Due to its remarkable mucoadhesive characteristics, chitosan (CS) has undergone the most extensive research of any mucoadhesive polymer. Drug delivery to the front and back of the eye is still difficult. The pharmaceutical industry has shown greater interest in drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanotechnology (NT) in recent years, particularly those made from natural polymers like chitosan, alginate, etc. Because of their incredible adaptability, higher biological effects, and favourable physicochemical properties, CS-oriented nanomaterials (NMs) are explored by researchers as prospective nanocarriers. CS are the right substrates to develop pharmaceutical products, such as hydrogels, nanoparticles (NP), microparticles, and nanofibers, whether used alone or in composite form. CS-based nanocarriers deliver medicine, such as peptides, growth factors, vaccines, and genetic materials in regulated and targeted form. This review highlights current developments and challenges in chitosan- mediated nano therapies associated with AMD.
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Wong WL, Su X, Li X, et al. Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health  2014; 2(2): e106-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70145-1] [PMID: 25104651]

[2]
Holz FG, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Fleckenstein M. Recent developments in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. J Clin Invest  2014; 124(4): 1430-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI71029] [PMID: 24691477]

[3]
Mitchell P, Liew G, Gopinath B, Wong TY. Age-related macular degeneration. Lancet  2018; 392(10153): 1147-59.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31550-2] [PMID: 30303083]

[4]
Grossniklaus HE, Ling JX, Wallace TM, et al. Macrophage and retinal pigment epithelium expression of angiogenic cytokines in choroidal neovascularization. Mol Vis  2002; 8: 119-26.
 [PMID: 11979237]

[5]
Carneiro Â, Andrade JP. Nutritional and lifestyle interventions for age-related macular degeneration: A review. Oxid Med Cell Longev  2017; 2017: 6469138.
 [PMID: 28154734]

[6]
de Koning-Backus APM, Buitendijk GHS, Kiefte-de Jong JC, et al. Intake of vegetables, fruit, and fish is beneficial for age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol  2019; 198: 70-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajo.2018.09.036] [PMID: 30312575]

[7]
Velilla S, García-Medina JJ, García-Layana A, et al. Smoking and age-related macular degeneration: Review and update. J Ophthalmol  2013; 2013: 1-11.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/895147] [PMID: 24368940]

[8]
Maugeri A, Barchitta M, Mazzone MG, Giuliano F, Agodi A. Complement system and age-related macular degeneration: Implications of gene-environment interaction for preventive and personalized medicine. BioMed Res Int  2018; 2018: 1-13.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/7532507] [PMID: 30225264]

[9]
Merle H, Béral L, Rocher M, et al. Class II human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and susceptibility to polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy in afro-caribbean descent. Clin Ophthalmol  2022; 16: 1047-53.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S337084] [PMID: 35418742]

[10]
Korb CA, Elbaz H, Schuster AK, et al. Five-year cumulative incidence and progression of age-related macular degeneration: Results from the German population-based Gutenberg Health Study (GHS). Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol  2022; 260(1): 55-64.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00417-021-05312-y] [PMID: 34424371]

[11]
Flores R, Carneiro Â, Vieira M, Tenreiro S, Seabra MC. Age-Related macular degeneration: Pathophysiology, management, and future perspectives. IntJ ophthal  2021; 244(6): 495-511.

[12]
Fernandes AR. Zielińska A, Sanchez-Lopez E, et al. Exudative versus nonexudative age-related macular degeneration: Physiopathology and treatment options. Int J Mol Sci  2022; 23(5): 2592.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23052592] [PMID: 35269743]

[13]
Kwon YH, Kim YA, Yoo YH. Loss of pigment epithelial cells is prevented by autophagy Autophagy: Cancer, Other Pathologies, Inflammation, Immunity, Infection, and Aging.  Elsevier 2017; pp. 105-17.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805420-8.00003-2]

[14]
Yonekawa Y, Kim IK. Clinical characteristics and current treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med  2015; 5(1): a017178.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a017178] [PMID: 25280900]

[15]
Barar J, Javadzadeh AR, Omidi Y. Ocular novel drug delivery: Impacts of membranes and barriers. Expert Opin Drug Deliv  2008; 5(5): 567-81.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425247.5.5.567] [PMID: 18491982]

[16]
Agrahari V, Mandal A, Agrahari V, et al. A comprehensive insight on ocular pharmacokinetics. Drug Deliv Transl Res  2016; 6(6): 735-54.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13346-016-0339-2] [PMID: 27798766]

[17]
Sánchez-López E, Egea MA, Davis BM, Guo L, Espina M, Silva AM, et al. Memantine-loaded pegylated biodegradable nanoparticles for the treatment of glaucoma. Small  2018; 14(2)
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smll.201701808]

[18]
Mahaling B, Katti DS. Understanding the influence of surface properties of nanoparticles and penetration enhancers for improving bioavailability in eye tissues in vivo. Int J Pharm  2016; 501(1-2): 1-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.01.053] [PMID: 26821059]

[19]
Okabe K, Kimura H, Okabe J, et al. Effect of benzalkonium chloride on transscleral drug delivery. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci  2005; 46(2): 703-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.03-0934] [PMID: 15671302]

[20]
Johnson LN, Cashman SM, Kumar-Singh R. Cell-penetrating peptide for enhanced delivery of nucleic acids and drugs to ocular tissues including retina and cornea. Mol Ther  2008; 16(1): 107-14.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.mt.6300324]

[21]
Lindsey JD, Crowston JG, Tran A, Morris C, Weinreb RN. Direct matrix metalloproteinase enhancement of transscleral permeability. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci  2007; 48(2): 752-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.06-0334] [PMID: 17251474]

[22]
Aihara M, Lindsey JD, Weinreb RN. Enhanced FGF-2 movement through human sclera after exposure to latanoprost. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci  2001; 42(11): 2554-9.
 [PMID: 11581197]

[23]
Burgalassi S, Chetoni P, Monti D, Saettone MF. Cytotoxicity of potential ocular permeation enhancers evaluated on rabbit and human corneal epithelial cell lines. Toxicol Lett  2001; 122(1): 1-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(01)00261-2] [PMID: 11397552]

[24]
Albanese A, Tang PS, Chan WCW. The effect of nanoparticle size, shape, and surface chemistry on biological systems. Annu Rev Biomed Eng  2012; 14(1): 1-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071811-150124] [PMID: 22524388]

[25]
Petros RA, DeSimone JM. Strategies in the design of nanoparticles for therapeutic applications. Nat Rev Drug Discov  2010; 9(8): 615-27.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd2591] [PMID: 20616808]

[26]
Sahay G, Alakhova DY, Kabanov AV. Endocytosis of nanomedicines. J Control Release  2010; 145(3): 182-95.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.01.036]

[27]
Iwase T, Fu J, Yoshida T, Muramatsu D, Miki A, Hashida N, et al. Sustained delivery of a HIF-1 antagonist for ocular neovascularization. J control rel offJ Control Rel Soc  2013; 172(3): 625-33.

[28]
Fu J, Sun F, Liu W, et al. Subconjunctival delivery of dorzolamide-loaded poly(ether-anhydride) microparticles produces sustained lowering of intraocular pressure in rabbits. Mol Pharm  2016; 13(9): 2987-95.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00343] [PMID: 27336794]

[29]
Mahaling B, Srinivasarao DA, Raghu G, Kasam RK, Bhanuprakash Reddy G, Katti DS. A non-invasive nanoparticle mediated delivery of triamcinolone acetonide ameliorates diabetic retinopathy in rats. Nanoscale  2018; 10(35): 16485-98.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C8NR00058A] [PMID: 29897081]

[30]
Tyagi P, Barros M, Stansbury JW, Kompella UB. Light-activated, in situ forming gel for sustained suprachoroidal delivery of bevacizumab. Mol Pharm  2013; 10(8): 2858-67.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/mp300716t] [PMID: 23734705]

[31]
Inokuchi Y, Hironaka K, Fujisawa T, et al. Physicochemical properties affecting retinal drug/coumarin-6 delivery from nanocarrier systems via eyedrop administration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci  2010; 51(6): 3162-70.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.09-4697] [PMID: 20053972]

[32]
Mahaling B, Katti DS. Physicochemical properties of core–shell type nanoparticles govern their spatiotemporal biodistribution in the eye. Nanomedicine  2016; 12(7): 2149-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2016.05.017] [PMID: 27288669]

[33]
Farshchi E, Pirsa S, Roufegarinejad L, Alizadeh M, Rezazad M. Photocatalytic/biodegradable film based on carboxymethyl cellulose, modified by gelatin and TiO2-Ag nanoparticles. Carbohydr Polym  2019; 216: 189-96.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.03.094] [PMID: 31047056]

[34]
Kolangare IM, Isloor AM, Karim ZA, et al. Antibiofouling hollow-fiber membranes for dye rejection by embedding chitosan and silver-loaded chitosan nanoparticles. Environ Chem Lett  2019; 17(1): 581-7.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0799-3]

[35]
Pathak N, Singh P, Singh PK, et al. Biopolymeric nanoparticles based effective delivery of bioactive compounds toward the sustainable development of anticancerous therapeutics. Front Nutr  2022; 9: 963413.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.963413] [PMID: 35911098]

[36]
Sarkar S, Ponce NT, Banerjee A, Bandopadhyay R, Rajendran S, Lichtfouse E. Green polymeric nanomaterials for the photocatalytic degradation of dyes: A review. Environ Chem Lett  2020; 18(5): 1569-80.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01021-w] [PMID: 32837482]

[37]
Morin-Crini N, Lichtfouse E, Torri G, Crini G. Applications of chitosan in food, pharmaceuticals, medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, biotechnology, and environmental chemistry. Environ Chem Lett  2019; 17(4): 1667-92.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00904-x]

[38]
Karati D. A concise review on bio-responsive polymers in targeted drug delivery system. Polym Bull  2022; 1-23.

[39]
Bawa P, Pillay V, Choonara YE, du Toit LC. Stimuli-responsive polymers and their applications in drug delivery. Biomed Mater  2009; 4(2): 022001.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-6041/4/2/022001] [PMID: 19261988]

[40]
Nilsson D. Eye evolution and its functional basis. Vis Neurosci  2013; 30(1-2): 5-20.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0952523813000035] [PMID: 23578808]

[41]
Goel M, Picciani RG, Lee RK, Bhattacharya SK. Aqueous humor dynamics: A review. Open Ophthalmol J  2010; 4(1): 52-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874364101004010052] [PMID: 21293732]

[42]
Jager RD, Mieler WF, Miller JW. Age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med  2008; 358(24): 2606-17.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0801537] [PMID: 18550876]

[43]
Carrasco-León A, Amundarain A, Gómez-Echarte N, Prósper F, Agirre X. The Role of lncRNAs in the pathobiology and clinical behavior of multiple myeloma. Cancers  2021; 13(8): 1976.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers13081976] [PMID: 33923983]

[44]
Spaide RF, Jaffe GJ, Sarraf D, et al. Consensus nomenclature for reporting neovascular age-related macular degeneration data: Consensus on neovascular age-related macular degeneration nomenclature study group. Ophthalmology  2020; 127(5): 616-36.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.11.004] [PMID: 31864668]

[45]
Gayton J. Etiology, prevalence, and treatment of dry eye disease. Clin Ophthalmol  2009; 3: 405-12.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S5555] [PMID: 19688028]

[46]
Watt K, Swarbrick HA. Microbial keratitis in overnight orthokeratology: Review of the first 50 cases. Eye Contact Lens  2005; 31(5): 201-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.icl.0000179705.23313.7e] [PMID: 16163011]

[47]
Azari AA, Barney NP. Conjunctivitis. JAMA  2013; 310(16): 1721-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.280318] [PMID: 24150468]

[48]
Toh TY, Morton J, Coxon J, Elder MJ. Medical treatment of cataract. Clin Exp Ophthalmol  2007; 35(7): 664-71.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9071.2007.01559.x] [PMID: 17894689]

[49]
McCluskey PJ, Towler HM, Lightman S. Regular review: Management of chronic uveitis. BMJ  2000; 320(7234): 555-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7234.555] [PMID: 10688564]

[50]
Weinreb RN, Aung T, Medeiros FA. The pathophysiology and treatment of glaucoma: A review. JAMA  2014; 311(18): 1901-11.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.3192] [PMID: 24825645]

[51]
Lim LS, Mitchell P, Seddon JM, Holz FG, Wong TY. Age-related macular degeneration. Lancet  2012; 379(9827): 1728-38.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60282-7] [PMID: 22559899]

[52]
Katz J, d’Albis MA, Boisgontier J, et al. Similar white matter but opposite grey matter changes in schizophrenia and high-functioning autism. Acta Psychiatr Scand  2016; 134(1): 31-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/acps.12579] [PMID: 27105136]

[53]
Ciulla TA, Amador AG, Zinman B. Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema: Pathophysiology, screening, and novel therapies. Diabetes Care  2003; 26(9): 2653-64.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.9.2653] [PMID: 12941734]

[54]
Karati D, Kumar Shaw T. Pharmacological importance of Bacopa monnieri on Neurological disease (Alzheimer’s Disease) and Diabetic neuropathy: A concise review. Res J Pharm Technol  2022; 15(8): 3790-5.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.52711/0974-360X.2022.00636]

[55]
Beli E, Yan Y, Moldovan L, et al. Restructuring of the gut microbiome by intermittent fasting prevents retinopathy and prolongs survival in db/db Mice. Diabetes  2018; 67(9): 1867-79.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db18-0158] [PMID: 29712667]

[56]
Wong TY, Cheung CMG, Larsen M, Sharma S, Simó R. Diabetic retinopathy. Nat Rev Dis Primers  2016; 2(1): 16012.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.12] [PMID: 27159554]

[57]
Lee R, Wong TY, Sabanayagam C. Epidemiology of diabetic retinopathy, diabetic macular edema and related vision loss. Eye Vis  2015; 2(1): 17.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40662-015-0026-2] [PMID: 26605370]

[58]
Yau JWY, Rogers SL, Kawasaki R, et al. Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care  2012; 35(3): 556-64.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1909] [PMID: 22301125]

[59]
Congdon N, Zheng Y, He M. The worldwide epidemic of diabetic retinopathy. Indian J Ophthalmol  2012; 60(5): 428-31.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0301-4738.100542] [PMID: 22944754]

[60]
Kernt M, Kampik A. Endophthalmitis: Pathogenesis, clinical presentation, management, and perspectives. Clin Ophthalmol  2010; 4: 121-35.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S6461] [PMID: 20390032]

[61]
Beck RW, Cleary PA, Anderson MM Jr, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of corticosteroids in the treatment of acute optic neuritis. N Engl J Med  1992; 326(9): 581-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199202273260901] [PMID: 1734247]

[62]
Borchert M, Liu GT, Pineles S, Waldman AT. Pediatric optic neuritis: What is new. J neuro-ophthal offic J North Am Neuro-Ophthalmol Soc  2017; 37(Suppl 1): S14-22.

[63]
Ghaffarieh A, Levin LA. Optic nerve disease and axon pathophysiology. Int Rev Neurobiol  2012; 105: 1-17.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-398309-1.00002-0] [PMID: 23206593]

[64]
Hartong DT, Berson EL, Dryja TP. Retinitis pigmentosa. Lancet  2006; 368(9549): 1795-809.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69740-7] [PMID: 17113430]

[65]
Dimaras H, Kimani K, Dimba EAO, et al. Retinoblastoma. Lancet  2012; 379(9824): 1436-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61137-9] [PMID: 22414599]

[66]
Shah PK, Naik AS, Jyothi S. Retinoblastoma: A comprehensive review. Keral J Ophthal  2016; 28(3): 164-70.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/kjo.kjo_11_17]

[67]
Kang Q, Yang C. Oxidative stress and diabetic retinopathy: Molecular mechanisms, pathogenetic role and therapeutic implications. Redox Biol  2020; 37: 101799.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2020.101799] [PMID: 33248932]

[68]
Yan J, Peng X, Cai Y, Cong W. Development of facile drug delivery platform of ranibizumab fabricated PLGA-PEGylated magnetic nanoparticles for age-related macular degeneration therapy. J Photochem Photobiol B  2018; 183: 133-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.04.033] [PMID: 29704861]

[69]
Bruning U, Morales-Rodriguez F, Kalucka J, et al. Impairment of angiogenesis by fatty acid synthase inhibition involves mTOR malonylation. Cell Metab  2018; 28(6): 866-880.e15.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.07.019] [PMID: 30146486]

[70]
Schoors S, Bruning U, Missiaen R, et al. Fatty acid carbon is essential for dNTP synthesis in endothelial cells. Nature  2015; 520(7546): 192-7.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature14362] [PMID: 25830893]

[71]
Huang H, Vandekeere S, Kalucka J, et al. Role of glutamine and interlinked asparagine metabolism in vessel formation. EMBO J  2017; 36(16): 2334-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.15252/embj.201695518] [PMID: 28659375]

[72]
Dong A, Xie B, Shen J, et al. Oxidative stress promotes ocular neovascularization. J Cell Physiol  2009; 219(3): 544-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.21698] [PMID: 19142872]

[73]
de Jong PTVM. Age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med  2006; 355(14): 1474-85.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra062326] [PMID: 17021323]

[74]
Anderson DH, Radeke MJ, Gallo NB, et al. The pivotal role of the complement system in aging and age-related macular degeneration: Hypothesis re-visited. Prog Retin Eye Res  2010; 29(2): 95-112.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.11.003] [PMID: 19961953]

[75]
Armento A, Ueffing M, Clark SJ. The complement system in age-related macular degeneration. Cell Mol Life Sci  2021; 78(10): 4487-505.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-021-03796-9] [PMID: 33751148]

[76]
Park DH, Connor KM, Lambris JD. The challenges and promise of complement therapeutics for ocular diseases. Front Immunol  2019; 10: 1007.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01007] [PMID: 31156618]

[77]
Hadziahmetovic M, Malek G. Age-related macular degeneration revisited: From pathology and cellular stress to potential therapies. Front Cell Dev Biol  2021; 8: 612812.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.612812] [PMID: 33569380]

[78]
Cabrera FJ, Wang DC, Reddy K, Acharya G, Shin CS. Challenges and opportunities for drug delivery to the posterior of the eye. Drug Discov Today  2019; 24(8): 1679-84.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2019.05.035] [PMID: 31175955]

[79]
Skelly A, Bezlyak V, Liew G, Kap E, Sagkriotis A. Treat and extend treatment interval patterns with anti-vegf therapy in namd patients. In: Vision.   2019; 3.(3)
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vision3030041]

[80]
Radhakrishnan K, Sonali N, Moreno M, et al. Protein delivery to the back of the eye: Barriers, carriers and stability of anti-VEGF proteins. Drug Discov Today  2017; 22(2): 416-23.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2016.10.015] [PMID: 27818255]

[81]
Battaglia L, Gallarate M, Serpe L, Foglietta F, Muntoni E, del Pozo Rodriguez A, et al. Ocular delivery of solid lipid nanoparticlesLipid Nanocarriers for Drug Targeting.  Elsevier 2018; pp. 269-312.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813687-4.00007-4]

[82]
Pikuleva IA, Curcio CA. Cholesterol in the retina: The best is yet to come. Prog Retin Eye Res  2014; 41: 64-89.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.03.002] [PMID: 24704580]

[83]
Peyman GA, Ganiban GJ. Delivery systems for intraocular routes. Adv Drug Deliv Rev  1995; 16(1): 107-23.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-409X(95)00018-3]

[84]
Janoria KG, Gunda S, Boddu SHS, Mitra AK. Novel approaches to retinal drug delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv  2007; 4(4): 371-88.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425247.4.4.371] [PMID: 17683251]

[85]
Duvvuri S, Majumdar S, Mitra AK. Drug delivery to the retina: Challenges and opportunities. Expert Opin Biol Ther  2003; 3(1): 45-56.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/14712598.3.1.45] [PMID: 12718730]

[86]
Sahu T, Ratre YK, Chauhan S, Bhaskar LVKS, Nair MP, Verma HK. Nanotechnology based drug delivery system: Current strategies and emerging therapeutic potential for medical science. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol  2021; 63: 102487.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102487]

[87]
Khiev D, Mohamed ZA, Vichare R, et al. Emerging nano-formulations and nanomedicines applications for ocular drug delivery. Nanomaterials  2021; 11(1): 173.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11010173] [PMID: 33445545]

[88]
Jain A, Prajapati SK, Kumari A, Mody N, Bajpai M. Engineered nanosponges as versatile biodegradable carriers: An insight. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol  2020; 57: 101643.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2020.101643]

[89]
Sur S, Rathore A, Dave V, Reddy KR, Chouhan RS, Sadhu V. Recent developments in functionalized polymer nanoparticles for efficient drug delivery system. Nano-Structures & Nano-Objects  2019; 20: 100397.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoso.2019.100397]

[90]
Buse J, El-Aneed A. Properties, engineering and applications of lipid-based nanoparticle drug-delivery systems: Current research and advances. Nanomedicine  2010; 5(8): 1237-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/nnm.10.107] [PMID: 21039200]

[91]
Kraft JC, Freeling JP, Wang Z, Ho RJY. Emerging research and clinical development trends of liposome and lipid nanoparticle drug delivery systems. J Pharm Sci  2014; 103(1): 29-52.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jps.23773] [PMID: 24338748]

[92]
Ojea-Jiménez I, Comenge J, García-Fernández L, Megson Z, Casals E, Puntes V. Engineered inorganic nanoparticles for drug delivery applications. Curr Drug Metab  2013; 14(5): 518-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13892002113149990008] [PMID: 23116108]

[93]
Vaneev A, Tikhomirova V, Chesnokova N, et al. Nanotechnology for topical drug delivery to the anterior segment of the eye. Int J Mol Sci  2021; 22(22): 12368.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212368] [PMID: 34830247]

[94]
Han X, Wang C, Liu Z. Red blood cells as smart delivery systems. Bioconjug Chem  2018; 29(4): 852-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00758] [PMID: 29298380]

[95]
Abd Elkodous M, El-Husseiny HM, El-Sayyad GS, et al. Recent advances in waste-recycled nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Waste-to-wealth. Nanotechnol Rev  2021; 10(1): 1662-739.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2021-0099]

[96]
Duncan R, Gaspar R. Nanomedicine(s) under the microscope. Mol Pharm  2011; 8(6): 2101-41.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/mp200394t] [PMID: 21974749]

[97]
Nwabor OF, Singh S, Paosen S, Vongkamjan K, Voravuthikunchai SP. Enhancement of food shelf life with polyvinyl alcohol-chitosan nanocomposite films from bioactive Eucalyptus leaf extracts. Food Biosci  2020; 36: 100609.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100609]

[98]
Eze FN, Jayeoye TJ, Singh S. Fabrication of intelligent pH-sensing films with antioxidant potential for monitoring shrimp freshness via the fortification of chitosan matrix with broken Riceberry phenolic extract. Food Chem  2022; 366: 130574.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130574] [PMID: 34303209]

[99]
Mohite P, Shah SR, Singh S, et al. Chitosan and chito-oligosaccharide: A versatile biopolymer with endless grafting possibilities for multifarious applications. Front Bioeng Biotechnol  2023; 11: 1190879.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1190879] [PMID: 37274159]

[100]
Singh S, Nwabor OF, Syukri DM, Voravuthikunchai SP. Chitosan-poly(vinyl alcohol) intelligent films fortified with anthocyanins isolated from Clitoria ternatea and Carissa carandas for monitoring beverage freshness. Int J Biol Macromol  2021; 182: 1015-25.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.027] [PMID: 33839180]

[101]
Kumar A, Yadav S, Pramanik J, et al. Chitosan-based composites: Development and perspective in food preservation and biomedical applications. Polymers  2023; 15(15): 3150.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym15153150] [PMID: 37571044]

[102]
Mohite P, Rahayu P, Munde S, et al. Chitosan-based hydrogel in the management of dermal infections: A review. Gels  2023; 9(7): 594.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/gels9070594] [PMID: 37504473]

[103]
Tanito M, Kaidzu S, Takai Y, Ohira A. Correlation between systemic oxidative stress and intraocular pressure level. PLoS One  2015; 10(7): e0133582.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133582] [PMID: 26186651]

[104]
Weng Y, Liu J, Jin S, Guo W, Liang X, Hu Z. Nanotechnology-based strategies for treatment of ocular disease. Acta Pharm Sin B  2017; 7(3): 281-91.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2016.09.001] [PMID: 28540165]

[105]
Mann BK, Stirland DL, Lee HK, Wirostko BM. Ocular translational science: A review of development steps and paths. Adv Drug Deliv Rev  2018; 126: 195-203.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2018.01.012] [PMID: 29355668]

[106]
Chang E. Relevance of nanotechnology to retinal disease. Retin Physician  2017; 14: 44-6.

[107]
Madni A, Rahem MA, Tahir N, et al. Non-invasive strategies for targeting the posterior segment of eye. Int J Pharm  2017; 530(1-2): 326-45.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.07.065] [PMID: 28755994]

[108]
Formica ML, Real JP, Allemandi D, Palma YS. Nano technological drug release approaches for the treatment of eye diseases: Myth, reality or challenge. J pharmacol clin res  2018; 5(1): 5-7.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/JPCR.2018.05.555654]

[109]
Bucolo C, Drago F, Salomone S. Ocular drug delivery: A clue from nanotechnology. Front Pharmacol  2012; 3: 188.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2012.00188] [PMID: 23125835]

[110]
Kiernan DF, Lim JI. Topical drug delivery for posterior segment disease. Retina Today  2010; 5(4): 48-51.

[111]
Barar J, Aghanejad A, Fathi M, Omidi Y. Advanced drug delivery and targeting technologies for the ocular diseases. Bioimpacts  2016; 6(1): 49-67.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/bi.2016.07] [PMID: 27340624]

[112]
Sahoo S, Sahoo R, Nayak P. Mucoadhesive nanopolymers for posterior segment drug delivery. Retina Today  2011; 3: 60-3.

[113]
Diebold Y, Calonge M. Applications of nanoparticles in ophthalmology. Prog Retin Eye Res  2010; 29(6): 596-609.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2010.08.002] [PMID: 20826225]

[114]
Torchilin VP. Recent advances with liposomes as pharmaceutical carriers. Nat Rev Drug Discov  2005; 4(2): 145-60.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd1632] [PMID: 15688077]

[115]
Arroyo CM, Quinteros D, Cózar-Bernal MJ, Palma SD, Rabasco AM, González-Rodríguez ML. Ophthalmic administration of a 10-fold-lower dose of conventional nanoliposome formulations caused levels of intraocular pressure similar to those induced by marketed eye drops. Europ J pharmac sci  2018; 111: 186-94.

[116]
Shimazaki H, Hironaka K, Fujisawa T, et al. Edaravone-loaded liposome eyedrops protect against light-induced retinal damage in mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci  2011; 52(10): 7289-97.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.11-7983] [PMID: 21849425]

[117]
Zhang R, Qian J, Li X, Yuan Y. Treatment of experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis with intravitreal injection of infliximab encapsulated in liposomes. Br J Ophthalmol  2017; 101(12): 1731-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2016-310044] [PMID: 28986343]

[118]
Khalil M, Hashmi U, Riaz R, Rukh Abbas S. Chitosan coated liposomes (CCL) containing triamcinolone acetonide for sustained delivery: A potential topical treatment for posterior segment diseases. Int J Biol Macromol  2020; 143: 483-91.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.256] [PMID: 31759018]

[119]
Gorantla S, Rapalli VK, Waghule T, et al. Nanocarriers for ocular drug delivery: Current status and translational opportunity. RSC Advances  2020; 10(46): 27835-55.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/D0RA04971A] [PMID: 35516960]

[120]
Bravo-Osuna I, Andrés-Guerrero V, Pastoriza Abal P, Molina-Martínez IT, Herrero-Vanrell R. Pharmaceutical microscale and nanoscale approaches for efficient treatment of ocular diseases. Drug Deliv Transl Res  2016; 6(6): 686-707.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13346-016-0336-5] [PMID: 27766598]

[121]
Qamar Z, Qizilbash FF, Iqubal MK, et al. Nano-based drug delivery system: Recent strategies for the treatment of ocular disease and future perspective. Recent Pat Drug Deliv Formul  2020; 13(4): 246-54.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1872211314666191224115211] [PMID: 31884933]

[122]
Chaiyasan W, Srinivas SP, Tiyaboonchai W. Crosslinked chitosan-dextran sulfate nanoparticle for improved topical ocular drug delivery. Mol Vis  2015; 21: 1224-34.
 [PMID: 26604662]

[123]
Fernandes AR, Vidal LB, Sánchez-López E, et al. Customized cationic nanoemulsions loading triamcinolone acetonide for corneal neovascularization secondary to inflammatory processes. Int J Pharm  2022; 623: 121938.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121938] [PMID: 35728716]

[124]
Araújo J, Garcia ML, Mallandrich M, Souto EB, Calpena AC. Release profile and transscleral permeation of triamcinolone acetonide loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (TA-NLC): In vitro and ex vivo studies. Nanomedicine  2012; 8(6): 1034-41.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2011.10.015] [PMID: 22115598]

[125]
Araújo J, Gonzalez-Mira E, Egea MA, Garcia ML, Souto EB. Optimization and physicochemical characterization of a triamcinolone acetonide-loaded NLC for ocular antiangiogenic applications. Int J Pharm  2010; 393(1-2): 168-76.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2010.03.034] [PMID: 20362042]

[126]
Sánchez-López E, Esteruelas G, Ortiz A, et al. Dexibuprofen biodegradable nanoparticles: One step closer towards a better ocular interaction study. Nanomaterials  2020; 10(4): 720.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10040720] [PMID: 32290252]

[127]
Sánchez-López E, Egea MA, Cano A, et al. PEGylated PLGA nanospheres optimized by design of experiments for ocular administration of dexibuprofen in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo characterization. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces  2016; 145: 241-50.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.04.054] [PMID: 27187188]

[128]
Sharma P, Mittal S. Nanotechnology: Revolutionizing the delivery of drugs to treat age-related macular degeneration. Expert Opin Drug Deliv  2021; 18(8): 1131-49.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17425247.2021.1888925] [PMID: 33691548]

[129]
Suri R, Nag TC, Mehra N, et al. Sirolimus loaded chitosan functionalized PLGA nanoparticles protect against sodium iodate-induced retinal degeneration. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol  2023; 82: 104369.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104369]

[130]
Elsaid N, Jackson TL, Elsaid Z, Alqathama A, Somavarapu S. PLGA microparticles entrapping chitosan-based nanoparticles for the ocular delivery of ranibizumab. Mol Pharm  2016; 13(9): 2923-40.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00335] [PMID: 27286558]

[131]
Zhao R, Li J, Wang J, Yin Z, Zhu Y, Liu W. Development of timolol-loaded galactosylated chitosan nanoparticles and evaluation of their potential for ocular drug delivery. AAPS PharmSciTech  2017; 18(4): 997-1008.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1208/s12249-016-0669-x] [PMID: 28101726]

[132]
Katiyar S, Pandit J, Mondal RS, et al. In situ gelling dorzolamide loaded chitosan nanoparticles for the treatment of glaucoma. Carbohydr Polym  2014; 102: 117-24.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.079] [PMID: 24507263]

[133]
Fathalla ZMA, Khaled KA, Hussein AK, Alany RG, Vangala A. Formulation and corneal permeation of ketorolac tromethamine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles. Drug Dev Ind Pharm  2016; 42(4): 514-24.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/03639045.2015.1081236] [PMID: 26407208]

[134]
Wassmer S, Rafat M, Fong WG, Baker AN, Tsilfidis C. Chitosan microparticles for delivery of proteins to the retina. Acta Biomater  2013; 9(8): 7855-64.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2013.04.025] [PMID: 23623991]

[135]
Xu X, Weng Y, Xu L, Chen H. Sustained release of avastin® from polysaccharides cross-linked hydrogels for ocular drug delivery. Int J Biol Macromol  2013; 60: 272-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.05.034] [PMID: 23748006]

[136]
Pandit J, Sultana Y, Aqil M. Chitosan-coated PLGA nanoparticles of bevacizumab as novel drug delivery to target retina: Optimization, characterization, and in vitro toxicity evaluation. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol  2017; 45(7): 1397-407.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2016.1243545] [PMID: 27855494]

[137]
Mateescu MA, Ispas-Szabo P, Assaad E. Chitosan and its derivatives as self-assembled systems for drug deliveryControlled Drug Delivery 1st.  Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited 2015; pp. 86-119.

[138]
Supper S, Anton N, Boisclair J, Seidel N, Riemenschnitter M, Curdy C, et al. Chitosan/glucose 1-phosphate as new stable in situ forming depot system for controlled drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Biopharm  2014; 88(2): 361-73.

[139]
Szymańska E, Winnicka K. Stability of chitosan: A challenge for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Mar Drugs  2015; 13(4): 1819-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/md13041819] [PMID: 25837983]

[140]
Varshosaz J, Tabbakhian M, Salmani Z. Designing of a thermosensitive chitosan/poloxamer in situ gel for ocular delivery of ciprofloxacin. The Open Drug Deliv J  2008; 2(1)

[141]
Hurler J, Škalko-Basnet N. Potentials of chitosan-based delivery systems in wound therapy: Bioadhesion study. J Funct Biomater  2012; 3(1): 37-48.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jfb3010037] [PMID: 24956514]

[142]
Cheng YH, Tsai TH, Jhan YY, et al. Thermosensitive chitosan-based hydrogel as a topical ocular drug delivery system of latanoprost for glaucoma treatment. Carbohydr Polym  2016; 144: 390-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.080] [PMID: 27083831]

[143]
Popa L, Ghica MV, Dinu-Pîrvu CE, Irimia T. Chitosan: A good candidate for sustained release ocular drug delivery systems. Myriad Functionalities in Science and Technology. Intechopen 2018.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76039]

[144]
Chen X, Li X, Zhou Y, et al. Chitosan-based thermosensitive hydrogel as a promising ocular drug delivery system: Preparation, characterization, and in vivo evaluation. J Biomater Appl  2012; 27(4): 391-402.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0885328211406563] [PMID: 21750179]

[145]
Jain D, Kumar V, Singh S, Mullertz A, Bar-Shalom D. Newer trends in in situ gelling systems for controlled ocular drug delivery. J Anal Pharm Res  2016; 2(3): 00022.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/japlr.2016.02.00022]

[146]
Wang K, Mitra RN, Zheng M, Han Z. Nanoceria-loaded injectable hydrogels for potential age-related macular degeneration treatment. J Biomed Mater Res A  2018; 106(11): 2795-804.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.36450] [PMID: 29752862]

[147]
Kesharwani P, Jain K, Jain NK. Dendrimer as nanocarrier for drug delivery. Prog Polym Sci  2014; 39(2): 268-307.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.07.005]

[148]
Nishiyama N, Iriyama A, Jang WD, et al. Light-induced gene transfer from packaged DNA enveloped in a dendrimeric photosensitizer. Nat Mater  2005; 4(12): 934-41.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmat1524] [PMID: 16299510]

[149]
Yavuz B, Pehlivan SB. Vural İ Ünlü N. In Vitro/In Vivo evaluation of dexamethasone—pamam dendrimer complexes for retinal drug delivery. J Pharm Sci  2015; 104(11): 3814-23.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jps.24588] [PMID: 26227825]

[150]
Lancina MG III, Wang J, Williamson GS, Yang H. Dentimol as a dendrimeric timolol analogue for glaucoma therapy: Synthesis and preliminary efficacy and safety assessment. Mol Pharm  2018; 15(7): 2883-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b00401] [PMID: 29767982]

[151]
Vyas S, Singh R, Jain S, et al. Non-ionic surfactant based vesicles (niosomes) for non-invasive topical genetic immunization against hepatitis B. Int J Pharm  2005; 296(1-2): 80-6.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.02.016] [PMID: 15885458]

[152]
Moghassemi S, Hadjizadeh A. Nano-niosomes as nanoscale drug delivery systems: An illustrated review. J Control Release  2014; 185: 22-36.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.04.015]

[153]
Abdelkader H, Ismail S, Kamal A, Alany RG. Design and evaluation of controlled-release niosomes and discomes for naltrexone hydrochloride ocular delivery. J Pharm Sci  2011; 100(5): 1833-46.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jps.22422] [PMID: 21246556]

[154]
Ge Y, Zhang A, Sun R, et al. Penetratin-modified lutein nanoemulsion in-situ gel for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Expert Opin Drug Deliv  2020; 17(4): 603-19.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17425247.2020.1735348] [PMID: 32105151]

[155]
Laradji AM, Kolesnikov AV, Karakoçak BB, Kefalov VJ, Ravi N. Redox-responsive hyaluronic acid-based nanogels for the topical delivery of the visual chromophore to retinal photoreceptors. ACS Omega  2021; 6(9): 6172-84.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c05535] [PMID: 33718708]

[156]
Torchilin VP. Micellar nanocarriers: Pharmaceutical perspectives. Pharm Res  2006; 24(1): 1-16.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11095-006-9132-0] [PMID: 17109211]

[157]
Vaishya RD, Khurana V, Patel S, Mitra AK. Controlled ocular drug delivery with nanomicelles. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol  2014; 6(5): 422-37.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1272] [PMID: 24888969]

[158]
Grimaudo MA, Pescina S, Padula C, et al. Poloxamer 407/TPGS mixed micelles as promising carriers for cyclosporine ocular delivery. Mol Pharm  2018; 15(2): 571-84.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00939] [PMID: 29313693]

[159]
Klaver CC, Wolfs RC, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, de Jong PT. Age-specific prevalence and causes of blindness and visual impairment in an older population: The rotterdam study. Arch Ophthalmol  1998; 116(5): 653-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.116.5.653]

[160]
Zhang P, Liu X, Hu W, Bai Y, Zhang L. Preparation and evaluation of naringenin-loaded sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin/chitosan nanoparticles for ocular drug delivery. Carbohydr Polym  2016; 149: 224-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.04.115] [PMID: 27261746]

[161]
da Silva SB, Ferreira D, Pintado M, Sarmento B. Chitosan-based nanoparticles for rosmarinic acid ocular delivery In vitro tests. Int J Biol Macromol  2016; 84: 112-20.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.11.070] [PMID: 26645149]

[162]
Lu Y, Zhou N, Huang X, et al. Effect of intravitreal injection of bevacizumab-chitosan nanoparticles on retina of diabetic rats. Int J Ophthalmol  2014; 7(1): 1-7.
 [PMID: 24634856]

[163]
Selvaraj K, Kuppusamy G, Krishnamurthy J, Mahalingam R, Singh SK, Gulati M. Repositioning of itraconazole for the management of ocular neovascularization through surface-modified nanostructured lipid carriers. Assay Drug Dev Technol  2019; 17(4): 178-90.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/adt.2018.898] [PMID: 30835139]

[164]
Cheng T, Li J, Cheng Y, Zhang X, Qu Y. Triamcinolone acetonide-chitosan coated liposomes efficiently treated retinal edema as eye drops. Exp Eye Res  2019; 188: 107805.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2019.107805] [PMID: 31526807]

[165]
Kalantar-zadeh K, Ou JZ, Daeneke T, Strano MS, Pumera M, Gras SL. Two‐dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides in biosystems. Adv Funct Mater  2015; 25(32): 5086-99.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201500891]

[166]
Mohammed M, Syeda J, Wasan K, Wasan E. An overview of chitosan nanoparticles and its application in non-parenteral drug delivery. Pharmaceutics  2017; 9(4): 53.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics9040053] [PMID: 29156634]

[167]
Opanasopit P, Aumklad P, Kowapradit J, et al. Effect of salt forms and molecular weight of chitosans on in vitro permeability enhancement in intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). Pharm Dev Technol  2007; 12(5): 447-55.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10837450701555901] [PMID: 17963144]

[168]
Hassanen EI, Khalaf AA, Tohamy AF, Mohammed ER, Farroh KY. Toxicopathological and immunological studies on different concentrations of chitosan-coated silver nanoparticles in rats. Int J Nanomedicine  2019; 14: 4723-39.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S207644] [PMID: 31308655]

[169]
Mao S, Shuai X, Unger F, Wittmar M, Xie X, Kissel T. Synthesis, characterization and cytotoxicity of poly(ethylene glycol)-graft-trimethyl chitosan block copolymers. Biomaterials  2005; 26(32): 6343-56.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.03.036] [PMID: 15913769]

[170]
Duan H, Nie S. Cell-penetrating quantum dots based on multivalent and endosome-disrupting surface coatings. J Am Chem Soc  2007; 129(11): 3333-8.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja068158s] [PMID: 17319667]

[171]
Nagpal K, Singh SK, Mishra DN. Chitosan nanoparticles: A promising system in novel drug delivery. Chem Pharm Bull  2010; 58(11): 1423-30.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/cpb.58.1423] [PMID: 21048331]

[172]
Li Y, Raza F, Liu Y, et al. Clinical progress and advanced research of red blood cells based drug delivery system. Biomaterials  2021; 279: 121202.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121202] [PMID: 34749072]

[173]
Prow TW, Bhutto I, Kim SY, et al. Ocular nanoparticle toxicity and transfection of the retina and retinal pigment epithelium. Nanomedicine  2008; 4(4): 340-9.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2008.06.003] [PMID: 18640079]

[174]
Paliwal R, Paliwal SR, Sulakhiya K, Kurmi BD, Kenwat R, Mamgain A. Chitosan-based nanocarriers for ophthalmic applicationsPolysaccharide Carriers for Drug Delivery.  Elsevier 2019; pp. 79-104.
 [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102553-6.00004-0]

[175]
Fernandez MJA, Rey MBS, De la Fuente Freire M, Pena AIV. Nanoparticles of chitosan and hyaluronan for the administration of active molecules. US20110142890A1, 2011.

[176]
Desai Tejal A, Chirra Hariharasudhan D. Univ california, assignee. bioactive agent delivery devices and methods of making and using the same. EP2856259B1, 2013.

[177]
Hebert R. Water-soluble indole-3-propionic acid. US20040029830 A1, 2004.
Cite As
Current Nanomedicine

Chitosan-based Nanomedicine in the Management of Age-related Macular Degeneration: A Review

Abstract

Graphical Abstract
