A Comprehensive Review of the Pharmacologic Perspective on Loop Diuretic Drug
Interactions with Therapeutically Used Drugs

Naina   Mohamed Pakkir   Maideen; Rajkapoor      Balasubramanian; Sudha      Muthusamy
Abstract

Background: Loop diuretics help to manage the patients with edema associated with congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and renal disease and hypertension. The patients taking loop diuretics may receive other medications to treat comorbidities leading to drug interactions.
Methods: The literature was searched in databases such as Medline/PMC/PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, Science Direct, EMBASE, Web of science, Ebsco, Directory of open access journals (DOAJ) and reference lists were used to spot relevant articles using keywords Drug interactions, Pharmacodynamic interactions, Loop diuretics, Bumetanide, Ethacrynic acid, Furosemide, and Torsemide.
Results: Loop diuretics are associated with hypokalemia, ototoxicity and other adverse effects. The drugs affected by hypokalemia and having the potential of inducing ototoxicity could interact with loop diuretics pharmacodynamically. Loop diuretics can interact with drugs such as amphotericin B, digoxin, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors), antidiabetic drugs, antifungal agents, dobutamine, gossypoland sotalol due to diuretic associated hypokalemia. In addition, the risk of ototoxicity could be enhanced by the concomitant use of loop diuretics and cisplatin, aminoglycoside antibiotics or phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE 5) inhibitors. Loop diuretics may also interact pharmacodynamically with drugs like cephalosporins, ceritinib, levothyroxine, pixantrone, probenecid, lithium, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), sulfonylureas and herbal drugs.
Conclusion: Clinicians, pharmacists and other health care providers should take responsibility for the safe use of medications. In addition, they are required to be aware of the drugs interacting with loop diuretics to prevent adverse drug interactions.
Keywords: Drug interactions, loop diuretics, furosemide, bumetanide, torsemide, ethacrynic acid.
Graphical Abstract

[1] 
Arthur, C.G.; John, E.H. Textbook of medical physiology. The body fluids & kidneys, Kidney Diseases and Diuretics, 11th ed; Elsevier Inc: Philadelphia, 2006. 
[2] 
Maideen, N.M.P.; Balasubramanian, R.; Ramanathan, S. Nigella Sativa (Black Seeds), A Potential Herb for the Pharmacotherapeutic Man-agement of Hypertension - A Review. Curr. Cardiol. Rev.,  2021, 17(4), e230421187786.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573403X16666201110125906 ] [PMID:  33172379] 
[3] 
Ellison, D.H.; Felker, G.M. Diuretic Treatment in Heart Failure. N. Engl. J. Med.,  2017, 377(20), 1964-1975.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1703100 ] [PMID:  29141174] 
[4] 
Wang, D.J.; Gottlieb, S.S. Diuretics: still the mainstay of treatment. Crit. Care Med.,  2008, 36(1)(Suppl.), S89-S94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.CCM.0000296272.68078.6B ] [PMID:  18158482] 
[5] 
Musini, V.M.; Rezapour, P.; Wright, J.M.; Bassett, K.; Jauca, C.D. Blood pressure-lowering efficacy of loop diuretics for primary hyperten-sion. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.,  2015, 2015(5), CD003825.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003825.pub4 ] [PMID:  26000442] 
[6] 
Katzung, B.G. Basic & Clinical pharmacology, 12th ed; Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill: New York, USA, 2012. 
[7] 
Qavi, A.H.; Kamal, R.; Schrier, R.W. Clinical use of diuretics in heart failure, cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome. Int. J. Nephrol.,  2015, 2015, 975934.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/975934 ] [PMID:  26294976] 
[8] 
Sica, D.A.; Carter, B.; Cushman, W.; Hamm, L. Thiazide and loop diuretics. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich),  2011, 13(9), 639-643.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2011.00512.x ] [PMID:  21896142] 
[9] 
Balasubramanian, R.; Maideen, N.M.P. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) and their drug interactions involving CYP enzymes, P-glycoprotein and OATP transporters-an overview. Curr. Drug Metab.,  2021, 22(5), 328-341.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389200222666210114122729 ] [PMID:  33459228] 
[10] 
Maideen, N.M.P.; Rajkapoor, B.; Muthusamy, S.; Ramanathan, S.; Thangadurai, S.A.; Sughir, A.A. A review on pharmacokinetic and phar-macodynamic drug interactions of adrenergic β-blockers with clinically relevant drugs-an overview. Curr. Drug Metab.,  2021, 22(9), 672-682.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389200222666210614112529 ] [PMID:  34182907] 
[11] 
Guthrie, B.; Makubate, B.; Hernandez-Santiago, V.; Dreischulte, T. The rising tide of polypharmacy and drug-drug interactions: population database analysis 1995-2010. BMC Med.,  2015, 13(1), 74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0322-7 ] [PMID:  25889849] 
[12] 
Pedrós, C.; Formiga, F.; Corbella, X.; Arnau, J.M. Adverse drug reactions leading to urgent hospital admission in an elderly population: prevalence and main features. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.,  2016, 72(2), 219-226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00228-015-1974-0 ] [PMID:  26546335] 
[13] 
Meng, W.; Ellsworth, B.A.; Nirschl, A.A.; McCann, P.J.; Patel, M.; Girotra, R.N.; Wu, G.; Sher, P.M.; Morrison, E.P.; Biller, S.A.; Zahler, R.; Deshpande, P.P.; Pullockaran, A.; Hagan, D.L.; Morgan, N.; Taylor, J.R.; Obermeier, M.T.; Humphreys, W.G.; Khanna, A.; Discenza, L.; Robertson, J.G.; Wang, A.; Han, S.; Wetterau, J.R.; Janovitz, E.B.; Flint, O.P.; Whaley, J.M.; Washburn, W.N. Discovery of dapagliflozin: a potent, selective renal sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. J. Med. Chem.,  2008, 51(5), 1145-1149.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm701272q ] [PMID:  18260618] 
[14] 
Brater, D.C. Clinical pharmacology of loop diuretics. Drugs,  1991, 41(Suppl. 3), 14-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199100413-00004 ] [PMID:  1712712] 
[15] 
Wilcox, C.S.; Shen, W.; Boulton, D.W.; Leslie, B.R.; Griffen, S.C. Interaction between the sodium-glucose-linked transporter 2 inhibitor dapagliflozin and the loop diuretic bumetanide in normal human subjects. J. Am. Heart Assoc.,  2018, 7(4), e007046.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.117.007046 ] [PMID:  29440005] 
[16] 
 Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Invokana (Canagliflozin). UK Summary
of product characteristics 2014.
[17] 
 Bristol Myers Squibb–Astra Zeneca EEIG. Forxiga (Dapagliflozin
propanediol monohydrate). UK Summary of product characteristics
2014.
[18] 
Maideen, N.M. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions of sulfonylurea antidiabetics. Eur. J. Med.,  2018, 6(2), 83-96.
[19] 
Maideen, N.M.P.; Balasubramaniam, R.; Balasubramaniam, R. Pharmacologically relevant drug interactions of sulfonylurea antidiabetics with common herbs. J. Herb. Med. Pharmacol.,  2018, 7(3), 200-210.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/jhp.2018.32] 
[20] 
Hammad, M.A.; Tangiisuran, B.; Kharshid, A.M.; Abdul-Aziz, N.; Hassan, Y.; Aziz, N.A.; Elsayed, T.M. Drug-drug interaction-related un-controlled glycemia. J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci.,  2017, 9(4), 221-228.
[PMID:  29456372] 
[21] 
 Furosemide Injection Drug Information. Available from: https://www.pdr.net/drug-summary/Furosemide-Injection-furosemide-1557 [cited: 10th July 2021].
[22] 
Okada, N.; Azuma, M.; Imanishi, M.; Zamami, Y.; Kirino, Y.; Nakamura, T.; Teraoka, K.; Abe, M.; Ishizawa, K. Potential usefulness of early potassium supplementation for preventing severe hypokalemia induced by liposomal amphotericin B in hematologic patients: a retro-spective study. Clin. Ther.,  2018, 40(2), 252-260.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.12.006 ] [PMID:  29305017] 
[23] 
Depont, F.; Vargas, F.; Dutronc, H.; Giauque, E.; Ragnaud, J.M.; Galpérine, T.; Abouelfath, A.; Valentino, R.; Dupon, M.; Hébert, G.; Moore, N. Drug-drug interactions with systemic antifungals in clinical practice. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf.,  2007, 16(11), 1227-1233.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pds.1473 ] [PMID:  17879355] 
[24] 
 Product Information: DIFLUCAN(R) oral tablets, oral suspension,
intravenous infusion injection, fluconazole oral tablets, oral suspension,
intravenous infusion injection. Roerig (per FDA); New York,
2014.
[25] 
Jiang, M.; Karasawa, T.; Steyger, P.S. Aminoglycoside-induced cochlea toxicity: a review. Front. Cell. Neurosci.,  2017, 11, 308.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00308 ] [PMID:  29062271] 
[26] 
Elliott, W.J. Drug interactions and drugs that affect blood pressure. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich),  2006, 8(10), 731-737.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-6175.2006.05939.x ] [PMID:  17028488] 
[27] 
Zadrozniak, M.; Szymanski, M.; Luszczki, J.J. Vitamin C alleviates ototoxic effect caused by coadministration of amikacin and furosemide. Pharmacol. Rep.,  2019, 71(2), 351-356.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2019.01.002 ] [PMID:  30831441] 
[28] 
Davis, R.R.; Brummett, R.E.; Bendrick, T.W.; Himes, D.L. The ototoxic interaction of viomycin, capreomycin and polymyxin B with ethac-rynic acid. Acta Otolaryngol.,  1982, 93(1-6), 211-217.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00016488209130874 ] [PMID:  6175163] 
[29] 
 Furosemide Oral Solution and Tablets Drug Information. Available
from: https://www.pdr.net/drug-summary/Furosemide-Oral-Solution-and-Tablets-furosemide-3283 [cited:12th July 2021].
[30] 
Norrby, R.; Stenqvist, K.; Elgefors, B. Interaction between cephaloridine and furosemide in man. Scand. J. Infect. Dis.,  1976, 8(3), 209-212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/inf.1976.8.issue-3.17 ] [PMID:  968459] 
[31] 
 Maxipime-cefepime injection, powder, for solution. Available from: https://labeling.pfizer.com/ShowLabeling.aspx?id=4383#ID_bb1d6b9e-8b19-45a6-a75d-879937d69db1 [cited:18th November 2021].
[32] 
George, R. Bailie; Curtis, A. Johnson; Nancy, A. Mason; Wendy, L. St. Peter Medfacts pocket guide of drug interactions, 2nd ed; Nephrology Pharmacy Associates, Inc.: USA, 2004. 
[33] 
Flapan, A.D.; Davies, E.; Waugh, C.; Williams, B.C.; Shaw, T.R.D.; Edwards, C.R.W. Acute administration of captopril lowers the natriuretic and diuretic response to a loop diuretic in patients with chronic cardiac failure. Eur. Heart J.,  1991, 12(8), 924-927.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/12.8.924 ] [PMID:  1915430] 
[34] 
Toussaint, C.; Masselink, A.; Gentges, A.; Wambach, G.; Bönner, G. Interference of different ACE-inhibitors with the diuretic action of furosemide and hydrochlorothiazide. Klin. Wochenschr.,  1989, 67(22), 1138-1146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01726115 ] [PMID:  2586018] 
[35] 
 Bumetanide monographs. Available from: https://www.wellrx.com/bumetanide/monographs/ [cited: 11th Jul 2021].
[36] 
Samanta, R.; Thiagalingam, A.; Turner, C.; Lakkireddy, D.J.; Kovoor, P. The use of intravenous sotalol in cardiac arrhythmias. Heart Lung Circ.,  2018, 27(11), 1318-1326.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hlc.2018.03.017 ] [PMID:  29853342] 
[37] 
Opie, L.H. Drug interactions of antihypertensive agents. S. Afr. Fam. Pract.,  2012, 54(2), S23-S25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20786204.2012.10874206] 
[38] 
Maideen, N.M.P. Pharmacologically relevant drug interactions of α-glucosidase inhibitors. J. Diabetes. Metab. Disord. Control,  2019, 6(2), 28-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/jdmdc.2019.06.00178] 
[39] 
Maideen, N.M.P. Pharmacologically relevant drug interactions of Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. J. Anal. Pharm. Res.,  2019, 8(2), 51-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/japlr.2019.08.00311] 
[40] 
Wang, M.T.; Su, C.Y.; Chan, A.L.; Lian, P.W.; Leu, H.B.; Hsu, Y.J. Risk of digoxin intoxication in heart failure patients exposed to digoxin-diuretic interactions: a population-based study. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.,  2010, 70(2), 258-267.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2010.03687.x ] [PMID:  20653679] 
[41] 
Olsen, R.M.; Sletvold, H. Potential drug-to-drug interactions: a cross-sectional study among older patients discharged from hospital to home care. States Health,  2018, 4(1), 8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40886-018-0075-z] 
[42] 
Follath, F. Do diuretics differ in terms of clinical outcome in congestive heart failure? Eur. Heart J.,  1998, 19(Suppl. P), 5-8.
[PMID:  9886706] 
[43] 
Howlett, J.G. Current treatment options for early management in acute decompensated heart failure. Can. J. Cardiol.,  2008, 24(Suppl. B), 9B-14B.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0828-282X(08)71023-7 ] [PMID:  18629382] 
[44] 

Product Information. ZYKADIA(TM) oral capsules, ceritinib oral capsules; Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation (per FDA); East Hanover: NJ, 2014. 
[45] 
Ghosh, S. Cisplatin: The first metal based anticancer drug. Bioorg. Chem.,  2019, 88, 102925.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.102925 ] [PMID:  31003078] 
[46] 
Gentilin, E.; Simoni, E.; Candito, M.; Cazzador, D.; Astolfi, L. Cisplatin-induced ototoxicity: updates on molecular targets. Trends Mol. Med.,  2019, 25(12), 1123-1132.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2019.08.002 ] [PMID:  31473143] 
[47] 
Li, Y.; Ding, D.; Jiang, H.; Fu, Y.; Salvi, R. Co-administration of cisplatin and furosemide causes rapid and massive loss of cochlear hair cells in mice. Neurotox. Res.,  2011, 20(4), 307-319.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12640-011-9244-0 ] [PMID:  21455790] 
[48] 
Xia, L.; Chen, Z.; Su, K.; Yin, S.; Wang, J. Comparison of cochlear cell death caused by cisplatin, alone and in combination with furosemide. Toxicol. Pathol.,  2014, 42(2), 376-385.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192623313483213 ] [PMID:  23548607] 
[49] 
 Dobutamine. Available from: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/ [cited: 21st Aug 2021].
[50] 
  Dobutamine. Available from: https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00841 [cited: 22nd Aug 2021].
[51] 
Product Information. Inapsine(R), droperidol; Akorn. Inc.: Decatur,  2001, IL, 12.
[52] 
 Product Information: FOSCAVIR(R) intravenous injection solution,
foscarnet sodium intravenous injection solution; Hospira, Inc. (per
Daily Med): Lake Forest, IL, 2014.
[53] 
 Foscarnet. 2021. Available from: https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00529 accessed 18th February 2021 [cited: 26th Aug 2021].
[54] 
Liu, G.Z.; Lyle, K.C.; Cao, J. Clinical trial of gossypol as a male contraceptive drug. Part I. Efficacy study. Fertil. Steril.,  1987, 48(3), 459-461.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)59418-7 ] [PMID:  3305087] 
[55] 
Qian, S.Z.; Jing, G.W.; Wu, X.Y.; Xu, Y.; Li, Y.Q.; Zhou, Z.H. Gossypol related hypokalemia. Clinicopharmacologic studies. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.),  1980, 93(7), 477-482.
[PMID:  6772395] 
[56] 
Liu, G.Z.; Ch’iu-Hinton, K.; Cao, J.A.; Zhu, C.X.; Li, B.Y. Effects of K salt or a potassium blocker on gossypol-related hypokalemia. Contraception,  1988, 37(2), 111-117.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(88)90121-7 ] [PMID:  3370986] 
[57] 
Maideen, N.M. Pharmacodynamic interactions of thiazide diuretics. Int. J. Med. Dev. C.,  2020, 4(6), 1007-1010.
[58] 
Juurlink, D.N.; Mamdani, M.M.; Kopp, A.; Rochon, P.A.; Shulman, K.I.; Redelmeier, D.A. Drug-induced lithium toxicity in the elderly: a population-based study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc.,  2004, 52(5), 794-798.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52221.x ] [PMID:  15086664] 
[59] 
Nunes, R.P. Lithium interactions with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and diuretics-A review. Arch. Clin. Psychiatry,  2018, 45(2), 38-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0101-60830000000153] 
[60] 
Paterson, C.A.; Jacobs, D.; Rasmussen, S.; Youngberg, S.P.; McGuinness, N. Randomized, open-label, 5-way crossover study to evaluate the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic interaction between furosemide and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs diclofenac and ibu-profen in healthy volunteers. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther.,  2011, 49(8), 477-490.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5414/CP201492 ] [PMID:  21781648] 
[61] 
Data, J.L.; Rane, A.; Gerkens, J.; Wilkinson, G.R.; Nies, A.S.; Branch, R.A. The influence of indomethacin on the pharmacokinetics, diuretic response and hemodynamics of furosemide in the dog. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,  1978, 206(2), 431-438.
[PMID:  682123] 
[62] 
Brater, D.C. Analysis of the effect of indomethacin on the response to furosemide in man: effect of dose of furosemide. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,  1979, 210(3), 386-390.
[PMID:  480189] 
[63] 
Chennavasin, P.; Seiwell, R.; Brater, D.C. Pharmacokinetic-dynamic analysis of the indomethacin-furosemide interaction in man. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,  1980, 215(1), 77-81.
[PMID:  7452492] 
[64] 
Ciabottoni, G.; Pugliese, F.; Cinotti, G.A.; Patrono, C. Renal effects of anti-inflammatory drugs. Eur. J. Rheumatol. Inflamm.,  1980, 3, 210-221.
[65] 
Maideen, N.M.P. Pharmacologically relevant drug interactions of nitro vasodilators. Int. J. Med. Rev.,  2020, 7(1), 30-31.
[66] 
Skeith, L.; Yamashita, C.; Mehta, S.; Farquhar, D.; Kim, R.B. Sildenafil and furosemide associated ototoxicity: consideration of drug-drug interactions, synergy, and broader clinical relevance. J. Popul. Ther. Clin. Pharmacol.,  2013, 20(2), e128-e131.
[PMID:  23756362] 
[67] 
Bach, M.H.; Simkin, P.A. Uricosuric drugs: the once and future therapy for hyperuricemia? Curr. Opin. Rheumatol.,  2014, 26(2), 169-175.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/BOR.0000000000000035 ] [PMID:  24445479] 
[68] 
Hsieh, Y.Y.; Hsieh, B.S.; Lien, W.P.; Wu, T.L. Probenecid interferes with the natriuretic action of furosemide. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol.,  1987, 10(5), 530-534.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005344-198711000-00006 ] [PMID:  2447401] 
[69] 
Opie, L.H.; Kaplan, N. Drugs for the heart, 7th ed; Elsevier Saunders: Philadelphia, 2009, pp. 88-111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-6158-8.50009-5] 
[70] 
Jamal-Hanjani, M.; Pettengell, R. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of pixantrone for the treatment of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol.,  2011, 7(11), 1441-1448.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2011.618834 ] [PMID:  21905966] 
[71] 

Product Information: Pixuvri intravenous injection powder concentrate, pixantrone intravenous injection powder concentrate. CTI Life Sci-ences Limited (per EMA); Hertforshire: United Kingdom, 2012. 
[72] 
 LEVO-T® (levothyroxine sodium) tablets, for oral use. Available
from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2017/021342s023lbl.pdf [cited: 15th Aug 2021]
[73] 
Klepser, T.B.; Doucette, W.R.; Horton, M.R.; Buys, L.M.; Ernst, M.E.; Ford, J.K.; Hoehns, J.D.; Kautzman, H.A.; Logemann, C.D.; Swegle, J.M.; Ritho, M.; Klepser, M.E. Assessment of patients’ perceptions and beliefs regarding herbal therapies. Pharmacotherapy,  2000, 20(1), 83-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1592/phco.20.1.83.34658 ] [PMID:  10641978] 
[74] 
Ma, L.; Zhao, L.; Hu, H.; Qin, Y.; Bian, Y.; Jiang, H.; Zhou, H.; Yu, L.; Zeng, S. Interaction of five anthraquinones from rhubarb with hu-man organic anion transporter 1 (SLC22A6) and 3 (SLC22A8) and drug-drug interaction in rats. J. Ethnopharmacol.,  2014, 153(3), 864-871.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.03.055 ] [PMID:  24685584] 
[75] 
 Armanini, D.; Fiore, C.; Bielenberg, J. Licorice. In: Encyclopedia of
Dietary Supplements, 2nd ed; Coates, P.M.; Betz, J.M.; Blackman,
M.R., Eds.; Informa Healthcare: New York, NY, 2010; pp. 479-486.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b14669-58] 
[76] 
Kuriyama, A.; Maeda, H. Topical application of licorice for prevention of postoperative sore throat in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Clin. Anesth.,  2019, 54, 25-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinane.2018.10.025 ] [PMID:  30391446] 
[77] 
Penninkilampi, R.; Eslick, E.M.; Eslick, G.D. The association between consistent licorice ingestion, hypertension and hypokalaemia: a sys-tematic review and meta-analysis. J. Hum. Hypertens.,  2017, 31(11), 699-707.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2017.45 ] [PMID:  28660884] 
[78] 
Sigurjónsdóttir, H.A.; Franzson, L.; Manhem, K.; Ragnarsson, J.; Sigurdsson, G.; Wallerstedt, S. Liquorice-induced rise in blood pressure: a linear dose-response relationship. J. Hum. Hypertens.,  2001, 15(8), 549-552.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jhh.1001215 ] [PMID:  11494093] 
[79] 
Walker, B.R.; Edwards, C.R.W. Licorice-induced hypertension and syndromes of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am.,  1994, 23(2), 359-377.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8529(18)30102-6 ] [PMID:  8070427] 
[80] 
Harkness, R. Pharm., FASCP & Steven Bratman, M.D. Drug-Herb Interactions Bible; Prima Publishing, 2000. 
[81] 
 AltCareDex® System [intranet database]. Version 5.1. Greenwood
Village (CO): Thomson Healthcare.
[82] 
Sanai, T.; Okuda, S.; Onoyama, K.; Oochi, N.; Oh, Y.; Kobayashi, K.; Shimamatsu, K.; Fujimi, S.; Fujishima, M. Germanium dioxide-induced nephropathy: a new type of renal disease. Nephron J.,  1990, 54(1), 53-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000185810 ] [PMID:  2296345] 
[83] 
Becker, B.N.; Greene, J.; Evanson, J.; Chidsey, G.; Stone, W.J. Ginseng-induced diuretic resistance. JAMA,  1996, 276(8), 606-607.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1996.03540080028021 ] [PMID:  8773630] 
[84] 
Siegel, R.K. Ginseng abuse syndrome. Problems with the panacea. JAMA,  1979, 241(15), 1614-1615.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1979.03290410046024 ] [PMID:  430716] 
[85] 
 Drug Interaction Report. Available from: https://www.drugs.com/interactions-check.php?drug_list=2370-0,1146-0&types%5B%5D=
[86] 
 Rountree, Robert Potential Herb-drug Interactions. Herbs for Health,
2001, 40-41.
[87] 
Laitinen, L.; Takala, E.; Vuorela, H.; Vuorela, P.; Kaukonen, A.M.; Marvola, M. Anthranoid laxatives influence the absorption of poorly permeable drugs in human intestinal cell culture model (Caco-2). Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm.,  2007, 66(1), 135-145.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2006.09.006 ] [PMID:  17098405] 
[88] 
  Dandelion. Available from: http://www.herbsandnaturalremedies.com/herbs/dandelion.htm [cited: 06th Feb 2021].
[89] 
 Dong quai. Available from: https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/herb/dong-quai [cited: 21st Feb 2021].
[90] 

Skidmore-Roth Linda Mosby’s Handbook of Herbs & Natural Supplements, 2nd ed; Mosby, Inc.: St. Louis, 2004. 
[91] 
al-Ghamdi, S.M.; Cameron, E.C.; Sutton, R.A. Magnesium deficiency: pathophysiologic and clinical overview. Am. J. Kidney Dis.,  1994, 24(5), 737-752.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6386(12)80667-6 ] [PMID:  7977315] 
[92] 
Dørup, I. Magnesium and potassium deficiency. Its diagnosis, occurrence and treatment in diuretic therapy and its consequences for growth, protein synthesis and growth factors. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl.,  1994, 618, 1-55.
[PMID:  8036903] 
[93] 
Whang, R.; Whang, D.D.; Ryan, M.P. Refractory potassium repletion. A consequence of magnesium deficiency. Arch. Intern. Med.,  1992, 152(1), 40-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1992.00400130066006 ] [PMID:  1728927] 
[94] 
Brady, J.A.; Rock, C.L.; Horneffer, M.R. Thiamin status, diuretic medications, and the management of congestive heart failure. J. Am. Diet. Assoc.,  1995, 95(5), 541-544.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00148-4 ] [PMID:  7722187] 
[95] 
Härdig, L.; Daae, C.; Dellborg, M.; Kontny, F.; Bohmer, T. Reduced thiamine phosphate, but not thiamine diphosphate, in erythrocytes in elderly patients with congestive heart failure treated with furosemide. J. Intern. Med.,  2000, 247(5), 597-600.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2796.2000.00649.x ] [PMID:  10809999] 
[96] 
Seligmann, H.; Halkin, H.; Rauchfleisch, S.; Kaufmann, N.; Motro, M.; Vered, Z.; Ezra, D. Thiamine deficiency in patients with congestive heart failure receiving long-term furosemide therapy: a pilot study. Am. J. Med.,  1991, 91(2), 151-155.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(91)90007-K ] [PMID:  1867241] 
[97] 
Shimon, I.; Almog, S.; Vered, Z.; Seligmann, H.; Shefi, M.; Peleg, E.; Rosenthal, T.; Motro, M.; Halkin, H.; Ezra, D. Improved left ventricu-lar function after thiamine supplementation in patients with congestive heart failure receiving long-term furosemide therapy. Am. J. Med.,  1995, 98(5), 485-490.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)80349-0 ] [PMID:  7733128] 
[98] 
Smellie, W.S.A.; Forth, J.; Coleman, J.J.; Irvine, W.; Dore, P.C.; Handley, G.; Williams, D.G.; Galloway, P.J.; Kerr, K.G.; Herriot, R.; Spickett, G.P.; Reynolds, T.M. Best practice in primary care pathology: review 6. J. Clin. Pathol.,  2007, 60(3), 225-234.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.2006.040014 ] [PMID:  16822875] 
[99] 
 Suggestions for drug monitoring in adults in primary care. Available
from: www.sps.nhs.uk [cited: 25th June 2021].
[100] 
 Clinical Knowledge Summaries. Heart failure. Available from: http://cks.library.nhs.uk/heart_failure [cited: 28th June 2021].
Cite As
Current Drug Metabolism

A Comprehensive Review of the Pharmacologic Perspective on Loop Diuretic Drug Interactions with Therapeutically Used Drugs

Abstract

Graphical Abstract
