Generic placeholder image

Current Drug Targets

Author(s): Firas Baidoun, Kholoud Elshiwy, Yasmine Elkeraie, Zahi Merjaneh, George Khoudari, Muhammad Talal Sarmini, Mohamed Gad, Muneer Al-Husseini and Anas Saad*

DOI: 10.2174/1389450121999201117115717

DownloadDownload PDF Flyer Cite As
Colorectal Cancer Epidemiology: Recent Trends and Impact on Outcomes

Page: [998 - 1009] Pages: 12

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer related deaths in the world with an estimated number of 1.8 million new cases and about 881,000 deaths worldwide in 2018. The epidemiology of CRC varies significantly between different regions in the world as well as between different age, gender and racial groups. Multiple factors are involved in this variation, including risk factor exposure, demographic variations in addition to genetic susceptibility and genetic mutations and their effect on the prognosis and treatment response. In this mini-review, we discuss the recent epidemiological trend including the incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer worldwide and the factors affecting these trends.

Keywords: Colorectal cancer, epidemiology, incidence, mortality, demographic, prognosis.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Goodarzi E, Beiranvand R, Mosavi-Jarrahi A, et al. Worldwide incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer and human development index (HDI): An ecological study. World Caner Res J 2019; 6: e1433.
[2]
Siegel RL, Torre LA, Soerjomataram I, et al. Global patterns and trends in colorectal cancer incidence in young adults. Gut 2019; 68(12): 2179-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319511] [PMID: 31488504]
[3]
Rawla P, Sunkara T, Barsouk A. Epidemiology of colorectal cancer: incidence, mortality, survival, and risk factors. Prz Gastroenterol 2019; 14(2): 89-103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/pg.2018.81072] [PMID: 31616522]
[4]
Araghi M, Soerjomataram I, Bardot A, et al. Changes in colorectal cancer incidence in seven high-income countries: a population-based study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 4(7): 511-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(19)30147-5] [PMID: 31105047]
[5]
Siegel RL, Miller KD. Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2020; 2020(70): 7-30.
[6]
Wong MCS, Huang J, Lok V, et al. Differences in incidence and mortality trends of colorectal cancer worldwide based on sex, age, and anatomic location. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 19(5): 955-966.e61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2020.02.026] [PMID: 32088300]
[7]
Frezza EE, Wachtel MS, Chiriva-Internati M. Influence of obesity on the risk of developing colon cancer. Gut 2006; 55(2): 285-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.2005.073163] [PMID: 16239255]
[8]
Douaiher J, Ravipati A, Grams B, Chowdhury S, Alatise O, Are C. Colorectal cancer-global burden, trends, and geographical variations. J Surg Oncol 2017; 115(5): 619-30. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jso.24578
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jso.24578] [PMID: 28194798]
[9]
Arnold M, Sierra MS, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, Bray F. Global patterns and trends in colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. Gut 2017; 66(4): 683-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2015-310912] [PMID: 26818619]
[10]
Safiri S, Sepanlou SG, Ikuta KS, et al. GBD 2017 Colorectal Cancer Collaborators. The global, regional, and national burden of colorectal cancer and its attributable risk factors in 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 4(12): 913-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(19)30345-0] [PMID: 31648977]
[11]
Zhang L, Cao F, Zhang G, et al. Trends in and predictions of colorectal cancer incidence and mortality in China from 1990 to 2025. Front Oncol 2019; 9: 98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2019.00098] [PMID: 30847304]
[12]
Khiari H, Ben Ayoub HW, Ben Khadhra H, Hsairi M. Colorectal cancer incidence trend and projections in tunisia (1994 - 2024). Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2017; 18(10): 2733-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29072401
[PMID: 29072401]
[13]
López-Abente G, Ardanaz E, Torrella-Ramos A, Mateos A, Delgado-Sanz C, Chirlaque MD. Colorectal Cancer working group. Changes in colorectal cancer incidence and mortality trends in Spain. Ann Oncol 2010; 21(Suppl. 3): iii76-82. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0923753419569861
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdq091] [PMID: 20427364]
[14]
Bailey CE, Hu CY, You YN, et al. Increasing disparities in the age-related incidences of colon and rectal cancers in the United States, 1975-2010. JAMA Surg 2015; 150(1): 17-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2014.1756] [PMID: 25372703]
[15]
Siegel RL, Miller KD, Goding Sauer A, et al. Colorectal cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2020. http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/colorectal/statistics/
[16]
Brenner DR, Ruan Y, Shaw E, et al. Increasing colorectal cancer incidence trends among younger adults in Canada. Prev Med (Baltim) 2017; 105: 345-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.10.007]
[17]
Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer Statistics, 2017. CA Cancer J Clin 2017; 67(1): 7-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21387] [PMID: 28055103]
[18]
Doubeni CA, Major JM, Laiyemo AO, et al. Contribution of behavioral risk factors and obesity to socioeconomic differences in colorectal cancer incidence. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104(18): 1353-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djs346] [PMID: 22952311]
[19]
Gandomani HS, Yousefi SM, Aghajani M, et al. Colorectal cancer in the world: incidence, mortality and risk factors. Biomed Res Ther 2017; 4: 1656.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15419/bmrat.v4i10.372]
[20]
Keum N, Giovannucci E. Global burden of colorectal cancer: emerging trends, risk factors and prevention strategies. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 16(12): 713-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41575-019-0189-8] [PMID: 31455888]
[21]
Wang H, Schmit SL, Haiman CA, et al. Hispanic Colorectal Cancer Study. Novel colon cancer susceptibility variants identified from a genome-wide association study in African Americans. Int J Cancer 2017; 140(12): 2728-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.30687] [PMID: 28295283]
[22]
Augustus GJ, Ellis NA. Colorectal cancer disparity in african americans: risk factors and carcinogenic mechanisms. Am J Pathol 2018; 188(2): 291-303.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.07.023] [PMID: 29128568]
[23]
Ashktorab H, Ahuja S, Kannan L, et al. A meta-analysis of MSI frequency and race in colorectal cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 7(23): 34546-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.8945] [PMID: 27120810]
[24]
Guindalini RSC, Win AK, Gulden C, et al. Mutation spectrum and risk of colorectal cancer in African American families with Lynch syndrome. Gastroenterology 2015; 149(6): 1446-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2015.07.052] [PMID: 26248088]
[25]
Abotchie PN, Vernon SW, Du XL. Gender differences in colorectal cancer incidence in the United States, 1975-2006. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2012; 21(4): 393-400. http://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/jwh.2011.2992
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2011.2992] [PMID: 22149014]
[26]
Gao R-N, Neutel CI, Wai E. Gender differences in colorectal cancer incidence, mortality, hospitalizations and surgical procedures in Canada. J Public Health (Bangkok) 2008; 30: 194-201. https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/pubmed/fdn019
[27]
Center MM, Jemal A, Smith RA, Ward E. Worldwide variations in colorectal cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 2009; 59(6): 366-78. http://doi.wiley.com/10.3322/caac.20038
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.20038] [PMID: 19897840]
[28]
Karastergiou K, Smith SR, Greenberg AS, Fried SK. Sex differences in human adipose tissues - the biology of pear shape. Biol Sex Differ 2012; 3(1): 13. http://bsd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2042-6410-3-13
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2042-6410-3-13] [PMID: 22651247]
[29]
Stattin P, Palmqvist R, Söderberg S, et al. Plasma leptin and colorectal cancer risk: a prospective study in Northern Sweden. Oncol Rep 10: 2015-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14534736
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/or.10.6.2015]
[30]
Meissner HI, Breen N, Klabunde CN, Vernon SW. Patterns of colorectal cancer screening uptake among men and women in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006; 15(2): 389-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0678] [PMID: 16492934]
[31]
Doubeni CA, Laiyemo AO, Major JM, et al. Socioeconomic status and the risk of colorectal cancer: an analysis of more than a half million adults in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. Cancer 2012; 118(14): 3636-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.26677] [PMID: 22898918]
[32]
Lansdorp-Vogelaar I, Kuntz KM, Knudsen AB, van Ballegooijen M, Zauber AG, Jemal A. Contribution of screening and survival differences to racial disparities in colorectal cancer rates. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012; 21(5): 728-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-12-0023] [PMID: 22514249]
[33]
Jarosz M, Sekuła W, Rychlik E. Trends in dietary patterns, alcohol intake, tobacco smoking, and colorectal cancer in Polish population in 1960-2008. BioMed Res Int 2013; 2013: 183204.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/183204] [PMID: 24369529]
[34]
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). All cancers fact sheet, 2018. Globocan 2019.
[35]
Hales Craig, Carroll Margaret. Cheryl Fryar CO. Prevalence of Obesity and Severe Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2017–2018.
[36]
Mattiuzzi C, Sanchis-Gomar F, Lippi G. Concise update on colorectal cancer epidemiology. Ann Transl Med 2019; 7(21): 609.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/atm.2019.07.91] [PMID: 32047770]
[37]
Orlich MJ, Singh PN, Sabaté J, et al. Vegetarian dietary patterns and the risk of colorectal cancers. JAMA Intern Med 2015; 175(5): 767-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.59] [PMID: 25751512]
[38]
Azeem S, Gillani SW, Siddiqui A, Jandrajupalli SB, Poh V, Syed Sulaiman SA. Diet and Colorectal Cancer Risk in Asia--a Systematic Review. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 16(13): 5389-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2015.16.13.5389] [PMID: 26225683]
[39]
Tayyem RF, Bawadi HA, Shehadah I, et al. Fast foods, sweets and beverage consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: A case-control study in Jordan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2018; 19(1): 261-9.
[PMID: 29374411]
[40]
Popkin BM, Adair LS, Ng SW. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr Rev 2012; 70(1): 3-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00456.x] [PMID: 22221213]
[41]
Tsoi KKF, Pau CYY, Wu WKK, Chan FK, Griffiths S, Sung JJ. Cigarette smoking and the risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 7(6): 682-688.e1, 5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cgh.2009.02.016] [PMID: 19245853]
[42]
Gram IT, Braaten T, Lund E, Le Marchand L, Weiderpass E. Cigarette smoking and risk of colorectal cancer among Norwegian women. Cancer Causes Control 2009; 20(6): 895-903.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10552-009-9327-x] [PMID: 19274482]
[43]
Botteri E, Iodice S, Bagnardi V, Raimondi S, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P. Smoking and colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2008; 300(23): 2765-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2008.839] [PMID: 19088354]
[44]
Creamer MR, Wang TW, Babb S, et al. Tobacco product use and cessation indicators among adults - United States, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019; 68(45): 1013-9. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6845a2.htm?s_cid=mm6845a2_w
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6845a2] [PMID: 31725711]
[45]
Choi Y-J, Myung S-K, Lee J-H. Light alcohol drinking and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Cancer Res Treat 2018; 50(2): 474-87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4143/crt.2017.094] [PMID: 28546524]
[46]
Fedirko V, Tramacere I, Bagnardi V, et al. Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies. Ann Oncol 2011; 22(9): 1958-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdq653] [PMID: 21307158]
[47]
Jasperson KW, Tuohy TM, Neklason DW, Burt RW. Hereditary and familial colon cancer. Gastroenterology 2010; 138(6): 2044-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.054] [PMID: 20420945]
[48]
Boland PM, Yurgelun MB, Boland CR. Recent progress in Lynch syndrome and other familial colorectal cancer syndromes. CA Cancer J Clin 2018; 68(3): 217-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21448] [PMID: 29485237]
[49]
Yurgelun MB, Kulke MH, Fuchs CS, et al. Cancer susceptibility gene mutations in individuals with colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2017; 35(10): 1086-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2016.71.0012] [PMID: 28135145]
[50]
Hampel H, Frankel WL, Martin E, et al. Screening for the Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer). N Engl J Med 2005; 352(18): 1851-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043146] [PMID: 15872200]
[51]
Moreira L, Balaguer F, Lindor N, et al. EPICOLON Consortium. Identification of Lynch syndrome among patients with colorectal cancer. JAMA 2012; 308(15): 1555-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.13088] [PMID: 23073952]
[52]
Wennstrom J, Pierce ER, McKusick VA. Hereditary benign and malignant lesions of the large bowel. Cancer 1974; 34(3): 850-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(197409)34:3+<850::AID-CNCR2820340711>3.0.CO;2-S] [PMID: 4604530]
[53]
Bisgaard ML, Fenger K, Bülow S, Niebuhr E, Mohr J. Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP): frequency, penetrance, and mutation rate. Hum Mutat 1994; 3(2): 121-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/humu.1380030206] [PMID: 8199592]
[54]
NEEL J V. A genetic study of multiple polyposis of the colon with an appendix deriving a method of estimating relative fitness. Am J Hum Genet 1955.
[55]
Björk J, Åkerbrant H, Iselius L, Alm T, Hultcrantz R. Epidemiology of familial adenomatous polyposis in Sweden: changes over time and differences in phenotype between males and females. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999; 34(12): 1230-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/003655299750024751] [PMID: 10636071]
[56]
Yu H, Hemminki K. Genetic epidemiology of colorectal cancer and associated cancers. Mutagenesis 2020; 35(3): 207-19.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mutage/gez022] [PMID: 31424514]
[57]
Chubb D, Broderick P, Frampton M, et al. Genetic diagnosis of high-penetrance susceptibility for colorectal cancer (CRC) is achievable for a high proportion of familial CRC by exome sequencing. J Clin Oncol 2015; 33(5): 426-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2014.56.5689] [PMID: 25559809]
[58]
Armaghany T, Wilson JD, Chu Q, Mills G. Genetic alterations in colorectal cancer. Gastrointest Cancer Res 2012; 5(1): 19-27.
[PMID: 22574233]
[59]
Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial colorectal cancer risk. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96(10): 2992-3003. http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.04677.x
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.04677.x] [PMID: 11693338]
[60]
Wang J, Shen J, Huang C, Cao M, Shen L. Clinicopathological significance of BRAFV600E mutation in colorectal cancer: An updated meta-analysis. J Cancer 2019; 10(10): 2332-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/jca.30789] [PMID: 31258736]
[61]
Afrăsânie VA, Marinca MV, Alexa-Stratulat T, et al. KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, HER2 and microsatellite instability in metastatic colorectal cancer - practical implications for the clinician. Radiol Oncol 2019; 53(3): 265-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/raon-2019-0033] [PMID: 31553708]
[62]
Lowe K, Bylsma LC, Levin-Sparenberg ED, et al. Prevalence of KRAS, NRAS, and BRAF gene mutations in metastatic colorectal cancer patients: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 2019; 37: 523-3. http://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2019.37.4_suppl.523
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2019.37.4_suppl.523]
[63]
Heinemann V, Stintzing S, Kirchner T, Boeck S, Jung A. Clinical relevance of EGFR- and KRAS-status in colorectal cancer patients treated with monoclonal antibodies directed against the EGFR. Cancer Treat Rev 2009; 35(3): 262-71. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305737208003198
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2008.11.005] [PMID: 19117687]
[64]
Tosi F, Magni E, Amatu A, et al. Effect of KRAS and BRAF mutations on survival of metastatic colorectal cancer after liver resection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Colorectal Cancer 2017; 16(3): e153-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clcc.2017.01.004] [PMID: 28216246]
[65]
Rowland A, Dias MM, Wiese MD, et al. Meta-analysis of BRAF mutation as a predictive biomarker of benefit from anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody therapy for RAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer. Br J Cancer 2015; 112(12): 1888-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2015.173] [PMID: 25989278]
[66]
Van Cutsem E, Köhne C-H, Hitre E, et al. Cetuximab and chemotherapy as initial treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2009; 360(14): 1408-17. http://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJMoa0805019
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0805019] [PMID: 19339720]
[67]
Pietrantonio F, Petrelli F, Coinu A, et al. Predictive role of BRAF mutations in patients with advanced colorectal cancer receiving cetuximab and panitumumab: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 2015; 51(5): 587-94. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959804915000982
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2015.01.054] [PMID: 25673558]
[68]
Yuan Z-X, Wang X-Y, Qin Q-Y, et al. The prognostic role of braf mutation in metastatic colorectal cancer receiving anti-egfr monoclonal antibodies: A Meta-Analysis. Miller TW, editor. PLoS One 2013. https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065995
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065995]
[69]
Randall E. Harris Global Epidemiology of Cancer. Burlington, MA: Jones Bartlett 2016.
[70]
Lutgens MWMD, van Oijen MGH, van der Heijden GJMG, Vleggaar FP, Siersema PD, Oldenburg B. Declining risk of colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: an updated meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2013; 19(4): 789-99. https://academic.oup.com/ibdjournal/article/19/4/789-799/4604909
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MIB.0b013e31828029c0] [PMID: 23448792]
[71]
Herrinton LJ, Liu L, Levin TR, Allison JE, Lewis JD, Velayos F. Incidence and mortality of colorectal adenocarcinoma in persons with inflammatory bowel disease from 1998 to 2010. Gastroenterology 2012; 143(2): 382-9. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016508512006890
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2012.04.054] [PMID: 22609382]
[72]
Yashiro M. Ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20(44): 16389-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i44.16389] [PMID: 25469007]
[73]
Gyde SN, Prior P, Allan RN, et al. Colorectal cancer in ulcerative colitis: a cohort study of primary referrals from three centres. Gut 1988; 29(2): 206-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.29.2.206] [PMID: 3345932]
[74]
Grivennikov SI. Inflammation and colorectal cancer: colitis-associated neoplasia. Semin Immunopathol 2013; 35(2): 229-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00281-012-0352-6] [PMID: 23161445]
[75]
Winther KV, Jess T, Langholz E, Munkholm P, Binder V. Long-term risk of cancer in ulcerative colitis: a population-based cohort study from Copenhagen County. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2(12): 1088-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1542-3565(04)00543-9] [PMID: 15625654]
[76]
Dulai PS, Sandborn WJ, Gupta S. Colorectal Cancer and Dysplasia in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Review of Disease Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2016; 9(12): 887-94. http://cancerpreventionresearch.aacrjournals.org/cgi/doi/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-16-0124
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-16-0124] [PMID: 27679553]
[77]
Suares NC, Ford AC. Prevalence of, and risk factors for, chronic idiopathic constipation in the community: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2011; 106(9): 1582-91. http://journals.lww.com/00000434-201109000-00005
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2011.164] [PMID: 21606976]
[78]
Jacobs EJ, White E. Constipation, laxative use, and colon cancer among middle-aged adults. Epidemiology 1998; 9(4): 385-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9647901
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199807000-00007] [PMID: 9647901]
[79]
Sonnenberg A, Müller AD. Constipation and cathartics as risk factors of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Pharmacology 1993; 47(Suppl. 1): 224-33. https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/139862
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000139862] [PMID: 8234434]
[80]
Power AM, Talley NJ, Ford AC. Association between constipation and colorectal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108(6): 894-903. http://journals.lww.com/00000434-201306000-00009
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2013.52] [PMID: 23481143]
[81]
Citronberg J, Kantor ED, Potter JD, White E. A prospective study of the effect of bowel movement frequency, constipation, and laxative use on colorectal cancer risk. Am J Gastroenterol 2014; 109(10): 1640-9. http://journals.lww.com/00000434-201410000-00021
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ajg.2014.233] [PMID: 25223576]
[82]
Guérin A, Mody R, Fok B, et al. Risk of developing colorectal cancer and benign colorectal neoplasm in patients with chronic constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014; 40(1): 83-92. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/apt.12789
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/apt.12789] [PMID: 24832002]
[83]
Clinton SK, Bostwick DG, Olson LM, Mangian HJ, Visek WJ. Effects of ammonium acetate and sodium cholate on N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-induced colon carcinogenesis of rats. Cancer Res 1988; 48(11): 3035-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3365693
[PMID: 3365693]
[84]
Zarkovic M, Qin X, Nakatsuru Y, et al. Tumor promotion by fecapentaene-12 in a rat colon carcinogenesis model. Carcinogenesis 1993; 14(7): 1261-4. https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/carcin/14.7.1261
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/carcin/14.7.1261] [PMID: 8330337]
[85]
Sundbøll J, Thygesen SK, Veres K, et al. Risk of cancer in patients with constipation. Clin Epidemiol 2019; 11: 299-310. https://www.dovepress.com/risk-of-cancer-in-patients-with-constipation-peer-reviewed-article-CLEP
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CLEP.S205957] [PMID: 31118818]
[86]
Park JY, Mitrou PN, Luben R, Khaw KT, Bingham SA. Is bowel habit linked to colorectal cancer? - Results from the EPIC-Norfolk study. Eur J Cancer 2009; 45(1): 139-45. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959804908008010
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2008.10.002] [PMID: 19013785]
[87]
Lee SJ, Kim S-A, Ku B-H, et al. Association between colorectal cancer and colonic diverticulosis: case-control study based on computed tomographic colonography. Abdom Imaging 2012; 37(1): 70-3. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00261-011-9743-8
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00261-011-9743-8] [PMID: 21516446]
[88]
Granlund J, Svensson T, Granath F, et al. Diverticular disease and the risk of colon cancer - a population-based case-control study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011; 34(6): 675-81. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04782.x
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2011.04782.x] [PMID: 21790681]
[89]
Cooper GS, Xu F, Barnholtz Sloan JS, Schluchter MD, Koroukian SM. Prevalence and predictors of interval colorectal cancers in medicare beneficiaries. Cancer 2012; 118(12): 3044-52. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cncr.26602
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.26602] [PMID: 21989586]
[90]
Berkel H, Holcombe RF, Middlebrooks M, Kannan K. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and colorectal cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1996; 18(2): 205-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a017926] [PMID: 9021313]
[91]
Rothwell PM, Wilson M, Elwin CE, et al. Long-term effect of aspirin on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality: 20-year follow-up of five randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376(9754): 1741-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61543-7] [PMID: 20970847]
[92]
Zelenay S, van der Veen AG, Böttcher JP, et al. Cyclooxygenase-Dependent Tumor Growth through Evasion of Immunity. Cell 2015; 162(6): 1257-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.08.015] [PMID: 26343581]
[93]
Cao Y, Nishihara R, Qian ZR, et al. Regular Aspirin Use Associates With Lower Risk of Colorectal Cancers With Low Numbers of Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes. Gastroenterology 2016; 151(5): 879-892.e4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2016.07.030] [PMID: 27475305]
[94]
Torre LA, Bray F, Siegel RL, Ferlay J, Lortet-Tieulent J, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin 2015; 65(2): 87-108.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21262] [PMID: 25651787]
[95]
Byers T, Barrera E, Fontham ETH, et al. American Cancer Society Incidence and Mortality Ends Committee. A midpoint assessment of the American Cancer Society challenge goal to halve the U.S. cancer mortality rates between the years 1990 and 2015. Cancer 2006; 107(2): 396-405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.21990] [PMID: 16770789]
[96]
Al-Husseini MJ, Saad AM, Jazieh KA, et al. Outcome disparities in colorectal cancer: a SEER-based comparative analysis of racial subgroups. Int J Colorectal Dis 2019; 34(2): 285-92. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00384-018-3195-3
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00384-018-3195-3] [PMID: 30443675]
[97]
Czaderny K. Increasing deaths from colorectal cancer in Poland - Insights for optimising colorectal cancer screening in society and space. Ann Agric Environ Med 2019; 26(1): 125-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.26444/aaem/99233] [PMID: 30922042]
[98]
Patel P, De P. Trends in colorectal cancer incidence and related lifestyle risk factors in 15-49-year-olds in Canada, 1969-2010. Cancer Epidemiol 2016; 42: 90-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canep.2016.03.009] [PMID: 27060626]
[99]
Kim SE, Paik HY, Yoon H, Lee JE, Kim N, Sung MK. Sex- and gender-specific disparities in colorectal cancer risk. World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21(17): 5167-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i17.5167] [PMID: 25954090]
[100]
Vuik FER, Nieuwenburg SAV, Bardou M, et al. Increasing incidence of colorectal cancer in young adults in Europe over the last 25 years. Gut 2019; 68(10): 1820-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-317592] [PMID: 31097539]
[101]
Sineshaw HM, Robbins AS, Jemal A. Disparities in survival improvement for metastatic colorectal cancer by race/ethnicity and age in the United States. Cancer Causes Control 2014; 25(4): 419-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10552-014-0344-z] [PMID: 24445597]
[102]
Sineshaw HM, Ng K, Flanders WD, Brawley OW, Jemal A. Factors that contribute to differences in survival of black vs white patients with colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 2018; 154(4): 906-915.e7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.11.005] [PMID: 29146523]
[103]
Rafiemanesh H, Mohammadian-Hafshejani A, Ghoncheh M, et al. Incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer and relationships with the human development index across the World. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2016; 17(5): 2465-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27268615
[PMID: 27268615]
[104]
Center MM, Jemal A, Ward E. International trends in colorectal cancer incidence rates. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009; 18(6): 1688-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-0090] [PMID: 19505900]
[105]
Center MM, Jemal A, Smith RA, et al. Worldwide variations in colorectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 2010; 53: 1099.
[106]
Brenner H, Bouvier AM, Foschi R, et al. EUROCARE Working Group. Progress in colorectal cancer survival in Europe from the late 1980s to the early 21st century: the EUROCARE study. Int J Cancer 2012; 131(7): 1649-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.26192] [PMID: 21607946]
[107]
Elferink MAG, van Steenbergen LN, Krijnen P, et al. Working Group Output of the Netherlands Cancer Registry. Marked improvements in survival of patients with rectal cancer in the Netherlands following changes in therapy, 1989-2006. Eur J Cancer 2010; 46(8): 1421-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2010.01.025] [PMID: 20172711]
[108]
Dekker E, Tanis PJ, Vleugels JLA, Kasi PM, Wallace MB. Colorectal cancer. Lancet 2019; 394(10207): 1467-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32319-0] [PMID: 31631858]
[109]
NIH consensus conference. Adjuvant therapy for patients with colon and rectal cancer. JAMA J Am Med Assoc 1990.
[110]
Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Macdonald JS, et al. Levamisole and fluorouracil for adjuvant therapy of resected colon carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1990; 322(6): 352-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199002083220602] [PMID: 2300087]
[111]
Efficacy of adjuvant fluorouracil and folinic acid in colon cancer. International Multicentre Pooled Analysis of Colon Cancer Trials (IMPACT) investigators. Lancet 1995; 345(8955): 939-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90696-7] [PMID: 7715291]
[112]
Ayanian JZ, Zaslavsky AM, Fuchs CS, et al. Use of adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy for colorectal cancer in a population-based cohort. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21(7): 1293-300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2003.06.178] [PMID: 12663717]
[113]
Saad AM, Abdel-Rahman O. Initial systemic chemotherapeutic and targeted therapy strategies for the treatment of colorectal cancer patients with liver metastases. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2019; 20(14): 1767-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2019.1642324] [PMID: 31314604]
[114]
Navarro M, Nicolas A, Ferrandez A, Lanas A. Colorectal cancer population screening programs worldwide in 2016: An update. World J Gastroenterol 2017; 23(20): 3632-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v23.i20.3632] [PMID: 28611516]
[115]
Mandel JS, Church TR, Bond JH, et al. The effect of fecal occult-blood screening on the incidence of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 343(22): 1603-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200011303432203] [PMID: 11096167]
[116]
Lee KJ, Inoue M, Otani T, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane S. Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Colorectal cancer screening using fecal occult blood test and subsequent risk of colorectal cancer: a prospective cohort study in Japan. Cancer Detect Prev 2007; 31(1): 3-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cdp.2006.11.002] [PMID: 17289293]
[117]
Levin TR, Corley DA, Jensen CD, et al. Effects of organized colorectal cancer screening on cancer incidence and mortality in a large community-based population. Gastroenterology 2018; 155(5): 1383-1391.e5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2018.07.017] [PMID: 30031768]
[118]
Brenner H, Chang-Claude J, Seiler CM, Rickert A, Hoffmeister M. Protection from colorectal cancer after colonoscopy: a population-based, case-control study. Ann Intern Med 2011; 154(1): 22-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-154-1-201101040-00004] [PMID: 21200035]
[119]
Atkin W, Wooldrage K, Parkin DM, et al. Long term effects of once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening after 17 years of follow-up: the UK Flexible Sigmoidoscopy Screening randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2017; 389(10076): 1299-311.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30396-3] [PMID: 28236467]
[120]
Shaukat A, Mongin SJ, Geisser MS, et al. Long-term mortality after screening for colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(12): 1106-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1300720] [PMID: 24047060]
[121]
Costantini AS, Martini A, Puliti D, et al. Colorectal cancer mortality in two areas of Tuscany with different screening exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst 2008; 100(24): 1818-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djn404] [PMID: 19066268]
[122]
Jørgensen OD, Kronborg O, Fenger C. A randomised study of screening for colorectal cancer using faecal occult blood testing: results after 13 years and seven biennial screening rounds. Gut 2002; 50(1): 29-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.50.1.29] [PMID: 11772963]
[123]
Lindholm E, Brevinge H, Haglind E. Survival benefit in a randomized clinical trial of faecal occult blood screening for colorectal cancer. Br J Surg 2008; 95(8): 1029-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bjs.6136] [PMID: 18563785]
[124]
Zheng S, Chen K, Liu X, et al. Cluster randomization trial of sequence mass screening for colorectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 2003; 46(1): 51-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10350-004-6496-2] [PMID: 12544522]
[125]
Chiu HM, Chen SLS, Yen AMF, et al. Effectiveness of fecal immunochemical testing in reducing colorectal cancer mortality from the One Million Taiwanese Screening Program. Cancer 2015; 121(18): 3221-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.29462] [PMID: 25995082]
[126]
Libby G, Fraser CG, Carey FA, Brewster DH, Steele RJC. Occult blood in faeces is associated with all-cause and non-colorectal cancer mortality. Gut 2018; 67(12): 2116-23. http://gut.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316483
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316483] [PMID: 30012724]
[127]
Chen L-S, Yen AM-F, Fraser CG, et al. Impact of faecal haemoglobin concentration on colorectal cancer mortality and all-cause death. BMJ Open 2013; 3(11): e003740. http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003740
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003740] [PMID: 24202058]
[128]
Lee TJW, Hull MA, Rajasekhar PT, et al. Aspirin users attending for NHS bowel cancer screening have less colorectal neoplasia: chemoprevention or false-positive faecal occult blood testing? Digestion 2012; 85(4): 278-81. https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/334372
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000334372] [PMID: 22538301]
[129]
Khalida S, Laheij R.J.F, Peter D.S, Martijn G. van O. FOBT accuracy in subjects using acetylsalicylic acid, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and warfarin: A meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2011; 140(5)
[130]
Takashima S, Kato J, Hiraoka S, et al. Evaluation of mucosal healing in ulcerative colitis by fecal calprotectin vs. fecal immunochemical test. Am J Gastroenterol 2015; 110: 873-80. http://journals.lww.com/00000434-201506000-00020
[131]
Fecal hemoglobin as a marker for mucosal inflammation of ulcerative colitis: Usefulness of combination with rachmilewitz’s clinical activity index. Gastroenterology 2014.
[132]
Thiis-Evensen E, Kalager M, Bretthauer M, et al. Long-term effectiveness of endoscopic screening on incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer: A randomized trial. United Eur Gastroenterol J 2013.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050640613483290]
[133]
Segnan N, Armaroli P, Bonelli L, et al. SCORE Working Group. Once-only sigmoidoscopy in colorectal cancer screening: follow-up findings of the Italian Randomized Controlled Trial--SCORE. J Natl Cancer Inst 2011; 103(17): 1310-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djr284] [PMID: 21852264]