Generic placeholder image

Current Diabetes Reviews

Author(s): Rajeev Gupta* and Kiran Gaur

DOI: 10.2174/1573399816666201006144606

DownloadDownload PDF Flyer Cite As
Epidemiology of Ischemic Heart Disease and Diabetes in South Asia: An Overview of the Twin Epidemic

Article ID: e100620186664 Pages: 21

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Explore Articles
About Journal
For Authors
For Editors
For Reviewers

Abstract

Background & Objectives: Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is one of the most important causes of death and disability in the world and diabetes is an important risk factor. This review was performed to describe the mortality and morbidity burden from this twin epidemic in South Asian countries.

Methods: Country-level data on the epidemiology of IHD and diabetes were obtained from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. Sub-national data were available only for India. We also retrieved epidemiological studies from published reviews on IHD and diabetes in India. These were supplemented with MEDLINE search.

Results: GBD study and regional epidemiological studies have reported that there are significant regional variations in IHD mortality and disease burden within South Asian countries. IHD burden has increased significantly from 2000 to 2017. Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology study has reported that diabetes is an important IHD risk factor in the South Asian region. GBD Study and International Diabetes Federation have reported increasing diabetes-related mortality and disease burden in South Asian countries, especially India. There are regional variations in diabetes-related mortality, disease burden, and prevalence in South Asia. At the macrolevel, rapid food and nutrition transition along with increasing physical inactivity is responsible for this twin epidemic.

Conclusion: Increasing trends in IHD and diabetes-related mortality and disease burden with regional variations are observed in South Asian countries.

Keywords: Cardiovascular diseases, ischemic heart disease, risk factors, type 2 diabetes, epidemiology, twin epidemic, prevention, social determinants.

[1]
World Health Organization. Cardiovascular diseases factsheet 2020.https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds)
[2]
GBD 2017 Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific mortality for 282 causes of death, 1980-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2018; 392(10159): 1736-88.
[PMID: 30496103]
[3]
GBD 2017 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 355 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2018; 392(10159): 1789-858.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32279-7] [PMID: 30496104]
[4]
Gupta R, Panwar RB, Sharma A, Panwar SR, Rao RS, Gupta BK. Continuing burden of rheumatic heart disease in India. J Assoc Physicians India 2020; 68(8): 61-6.
[PMID: 32738836]
[5]
Mensah GA, Roth GA, Fuster V. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: 2020 and beyond. J Am Coll Cardiol 2019; 74(20): 2529-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.10.009] [PMID: 31727292]
[6]
Gupta R, Wood DA. Primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease: populations, individuals, and health professionals. Lancet 2019; 394(10199): 685-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31893-8] [PMID: 31448740]
[7]
Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. INTERHEART Study Investigators. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet 2004; 364(9438): 937-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17018-9] [PMID: 15364185]
[8]
Yusuf S, Joseph P, Rangarajan S, et al. Modifiable risk factors, cardiovascular disease, and mortality in 155 722 individuals from 21 high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries (PURE): a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395(10226): 795-808.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32008-2] [PMID: 31492503]
[9]
Haas AV, McDonnell ME. Pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease in diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2018; 47(1): 51-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2017.10.010] [PMID: 29407056]
[10]
Global Health Data Exchange. 2017.http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool
[11]
Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A. et al. Global, regional, and national cardiovascular disease prevalence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life-years for 10 causes of cardiovascular mortality, 1990 to 2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70(1): 1-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.04.052] [PMID: 28527533]
[12]
Marmot M. Fair society healthy lives.The health gap: the challenge of an unequal world. London: Bloomsbury Publishing 2015; pp. 77-110.
[13]
Gupta R, Yusuf S. Challenges in ischemic heart disease management and prevention in low socioeconomic status people in low and lower-middle income countries. BMC Med 2019; 17(1): e209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1454-y] [PMID: 31767015]
[14]
Rajbhandari R, McMahon DE, Rhatigan JJ, Farmer PE. The neglected hospital: the district hospital’s central role in global healthcare delivery. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(5): 397-400.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1911298] [PMID: 31995684]
[15]
Gupta R, Mohan I, Narula J. Trends in coronary heart disease epidemiology in India. Ann Glob Health 2016; 82(2): 307-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2016.04.002] [PMID: 27372534]
[16]
Sarvotham SG, Berry JN. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in an urban population in northern India. Circulation 1968; 37(6): 939-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.37.6.939] [PMID: 5653054]
[17]
Gupta SP, Malhotra KC. Urban-rural trends in the epidemiology of coronary heart disease. J Assoc Physicians India 1975; 23(12): 885-92.
[PMID: 1225892]
[18]
Chadha SL, Radhakrishnan S, Ramachandran K, Kaul U, Gopinath N. Epidemiological study of coronary heart disease in urban population of Delhi. Indian J Med Res 1990; 92(6): 424-30.
[PMID: 2079357]
[19]
Sinha PR, Gaur SD, Somani PN. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in an urban community of Varanasi. Indian J Community Med 1990; 15(2): 82-5.
[20]
Reddy KS. Cardiovascular diseases in India. World Health Stat Q 1993; 46(2): 101-7.
[PMID: 8303903]
[21]
Gupta R, Prakash H, Majumdar S, Sharma S, Gupta VP. Prevalence of coronary heart disease and coronary risk factors in an urban population of Rajasthan. Indian Heart J 1995; 47(4): 331-8.
[PMID: 8557274]
[22]
Mohan V, Deepa R, Rani SS, Premalatha G. Chennai Urban Population Study (CUPS No.5). Prevalence of coronary artery disease and its relationship to lipids in a selected population in South India: The Chennai Urban Population Study (CUPS No. 5). J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38(3): 682-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01415-2] [PMID: 11527617]
[23]
Gupta R, Gupta VP, Sarna M, et al. Prevalence of coronary heart disease and risk factors in an urban Indian population: Jaipur Heart Watch-2. Indian Heart J 2002; 54(1): 59-66.
[PMID: 11999090]
[24]
Pinto VG, Motghare DD, Ferreira AMA, Kulkarni MS. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in an urban community of Goa. South Asian J Prev Cardiol 2004; 8(4): 211-5.
[25]
Kumar R, Singh MC, Singh MC, et al. Urbanization and coronary heart disease: a study of urban-rural differences in northern India. Indian Heart J 2006; 58(2): 126-30.
[PMID: 18989056]
[26]
Kamili M, Dar I, Ali G, Wazir H, Hussain S. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in Kashmiris. Indian Heart J 2007; 59(1): 44-9.
[PMID: 19098334]
[27]
Latheef SA, Subramanyam G. Prevalence of coronary artery disease and coronary risk factors in an urban population of Tirupati. Indian Heart J 2007; 59(2): 157-64.
[PMID: 19122250]
[28]
Murthy PD, Prasad KT, Gopal PV, Rao KV, Rao RM. A survey for prevalence of coronary artery disease and its risk factors in an urban population in Andhra Pradesh. J Assoc Physicians India 2012; 60(1): 17-20.
[PMID: 22799109]
[29]
Krishnan MN, Zachariah G, Venugopal K, et al. Prevalence of coronary artery disease and its risk factors in Kerala, South India: a community-based cross-sectional study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2016; 16(1): 12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-016-0189-3] [PMID: 26769341]
[30]
Oommen AM, Abraham VJ, George K, Jose VJ. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in rural and urban Vellore: A repeat cross- sectional survey. Indian Heart J 2016; 68(4): 473-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2015.11.015] [PMID: 27543468]
[31]
Dewan BD, Malhotra KC, Gupta SP. Epidemiological study of coronary heart disease in rural community in Haryana. Indian Heart J 1974; 26(2): 68-78.
[PMID: 4419665]
[32]
Jajoo UN, Kalantri SP, Gupta OP, Jain AP, Gupta K. The prevalence of coronary heart disease in rural population from central India. J Assoc Physicians India 1988; 36(12): 689-93.
[PMID: 3235426]
[33]
Chadha SL, Gopinath N, Radhakrishnan S, Ramachandran K, Kaul U, Tandon R. Prevalence of coronary heart disease and its risk factors in a rural community in Haryana. Indian J Community Med 1989; 14(2): 141-7.
[34]
Kutty VR, Balakrishnan KG, Jayasree AK, Thomas J. Prevalence of coronary heart disease in the rural population of Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala, India. Int J Cardiol 1993; 39(1): 59-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-5273(93)90297-T] [PMID: 8407009]
[35]
Wander GS, Khurana SB, Gulati R, et al. Epidemiology of coronary heart disease in a rural Punjab population-prevalence and correlation with various risk factors. Indian Heart J 1994; 46(6): 319-23.
[PMID: 7797219]
[36]
Gupta R, Gupta VP, Ahluwalia NS. Educational status, coronary heart disease, and coronary risk factor prevalence in a rural population of India. BMJ 1994; 309(6965): 1332-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.309.6965.1332] [PMID: 7866081]
[37]
Gupta AK, Bhardwaj A, Ashotra S, Gupta BP. Feasibility and training of multipurpose workers in detection prevention and control of coronary artery disease in the apple-belt of Shimla hills. South Asian J Prev Cardiol 2002; 6(1): 17-22.
[38]
Chow C, Cardona M, Raju PK, et al. Cardiovascular disease and risk factors among 345 adults in rural India-the Andhra Pradesh Rural Health Initiative. Int J Cardiol 2007; 116(2): 180-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2006.03.043] [PMID: 16839628]
[39]
Bhardwaj R, Kandoria A, Marwah R, Vaidya P, Dhiman P, Singh B. Coronary heart disease in rural population of Himachal-a population based study. J Assoc Physicians India 2009; 57(9): 505-7.
[PMID: 20329408]
[40]
Joshi R, Chow CK, Raju PK, et al. Fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular disease and the use of therapies for secondary prevention in a rural region of India. Circulation 2009; 119(14): 1950-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.819201] [PMID: 19332466]
[41]
Bodkhe S, Jajoo SU, Jajoo UN, Ingle S, Gupta SS, Taksande BA. Epidemiology of confirmed coronary heart disease among population older than 60 years in rural central India-A community-based cross-sectional study. Indian Heart J 2019; 71(1): 39-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2019.01.002] [PMID: 31000181]
[42]
Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Collaboration; Gregory A Roth 1 2, Catherine O Johnson 1, Kalkidan Hassen Abate, et al. The burden of cardiovascular diseases among the US states 1990-2016. USA regional differences JAMA Cardiol 2018; 3(5): 375-89.
[43]
Steel N, Ford JA, Newton JN, et al. Changes in health in the countries of the UK and 150 English Local Authority areas 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet 2018; 392(10158): 1647-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32207-4] [PMID: 30497795]
[44]
Zhang G, Yu C, Zhou M, Wang L, Zhang Y, Luo L. Burden of Ischaemic heart disease and attributable risk factors in China from 1990 to 2015: findings from the global burden of disease 2015 study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2018; 18(1): 18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-018-0761-0] [PMID: 29390974]
[45]
GBD 2016 Russia Collaborators. The burden of disease in Russia from 1980-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet 2018; 392(10153): 1138-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31485-5] [PMID: 30173906]
[46]
International Institute of Population Sciences and Macro International. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005-06: India. Mumbai: IIPS 2007; Vol. 1.
[47]
Rao KD, Bhatnagar A, Murphy A. Socio-economic inequalities in the financing of cardiovascular & diabetes inpatient treatment in India. Indian J Med Res 2011; 133(1): 57-63.
[PMID: 21321420]
[48]
Kinra S, Bowen LJ, Lyngdoh T, et al. Sociodemographic patterning of non-communicable disease risk factors in rural India: a cross sectional study. BMJ 2010; 341: c4974.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c4974] [PMID: 20876148]
[49]
Gupta R, Deedwania PC, Sharma KK, et al. Association of education, occupation and socioeconomic status with cardiovascular risk factors in Asian Indians: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2012; 7(8): e044098.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044098]
[50]
Gupta R, Mony P, Shankar K, et al. Socioeconomic status and cardiovascular secondary prevention therapies in South Asia: PURE Study. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2015; 22(10): 1261-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2047487314540386] [PMID: 24942224]
[51]
India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative CVD Collaborators. The changing patterns of cardiovascular diseases and their risk factors in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 1990-2016. Lancet Glob Health 2018; 6(12): e1339-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30407-8] [PMID: 30219317]
[52]
Ke C, Gupta R, Xavier D, et al. Million Death Study Collaborators. Divergent trends in ischaemic heart disease and stroke mortality in India from 2000 to 2015: a nationally representative mortality study. Lancet Glob Health 2018; 6(8): e914-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30242-0] [PMID: 30012272]
[53]
GBD India Compare https://gbd2016.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/india
[54]
Ahmed ST, Rehman H, Akeroyd JM, et al. Premature coronary heart disease in South Asians: Burden and determinants. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2018; 20(1): 6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-018-0706-1] [PMID: 29374801]
[55]
Gaziano TA, Gaziano JM. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease.Harrison’s Textbook of Internal Medicine. 20th ed. New York: McGraw Hill 2018; pp. 1662-6.
[56]
Ozdemir V, Burke W, Khoury MJ, et al. Genomics and public health.Abdool-Karim Q Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015; pp. 140-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199661756.003.0010]
[57]
Ridker PM, Libby P, Buring JE. Risk markers and the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 11th ed. New York: Elsevier 2019; pp. 876-909.
[58]
Chow CK, Teo KK, Rangarajan S, et al. PURE (Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology) Study investigators. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in rural and urban communities in high-, middle-, and low-income countries. JAMA 2013; 310(9): 959-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.184182] [PMID: 24002282]
[59]
Geldsetzer P, Manne-Goehler J, Marcus ME, et al. The state of hypertension care in 44 low-income and middle-income countries: a cross-sectional study of nationally representative individual-level data from 1·1 million adults. Lancet 2019; 394(10199): 652-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30955-9] [PMID: 31327566]
[60]
Yusuf S, Rangarajan S, Teo K, et al. PURE Investigators. Cardiovascular risk and events in 17 low-, middle-, and high-income countries. N Engl J Med 2014; 371(9): 818-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1311890] [PMID: 25162888]
[61]
World Health Organization. Global Status Report on Non-Communicable Diseases 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization 2014.
[62]
GBD 2016 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioral, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet 2017; 390(10100): 1345-422.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32366-8] [PMID: 28919119]
[63]
Non-communicable Disease Risk Factor Collaboration. 2019.www.ncdrisc.org
[64]
Volgman AS, Palaniappan LS, Aggarwal NT, et al. American heart association council on epidemiology and prevention. Cardiovascular disease and stroke in women and special populations committee of the council on clinical cardiology; council of cardiovascular nursing; council of quality of care and outcomes research; and stroke council. atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in south asians in the united states: epidemiology, risk factors and treatments. Circulation 2018; 138(1): e1-e34.
[PMID: 29794080]
[65]
Yakoob MY, Micha R, Khatibzadeh S, et al. Global burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors: nutrition and chronic diseases expert group, and metabolic risk factors of chronic diseases collaborating group. impact of dietary and metabolic risk factors on cardiovascular and diabetes mortality in south asia: analysis from the 2010 global burden of diseases study. Am J Public Health 2016; 106(12): 2113-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303368] [PMID: 27736219]
[66]
International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas 2019.www.diabetesatlas.org
[67]
Valiathan MS. The legacy of caraka. Hyderabad: Orient Longman 2003; pp. 88-91.
[68]
Ahuja MMS, Kumar V. Diabetes mellitus in the Indian scene.Progress in Clinical Medicine in India. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann 1976; pp. 538-60.
[69]
Ramaiya KL, Kodali VR, Alberti KG. Epidemiology of diabetes in Asians of the Indian subcontinent. Diabetes Metab Rev 1990; 6(3): 125-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dmr.5610060302] [PMID: 2091908]
[70]
Ahuja MMS. Recent contributions to the epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in India. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 1991; 11: 5-9.
[71]
Mohan V, Sandeep S, Deepa R, Shah B, Varghese C. Epidemiology of type 2 diabetes: Indian scenario. Indian J Med Res 2007; 125(3): 217-30.
[PMID: 17496352]
[72]
Misra A, Ramchandran A, Jayawardena R, Shrivastava U, Snehalatha C. Diabetes in South Asians. Diabet Med 2014; 31(10): 1153-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dme.12540] [PMID: 24975549]
[73]
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Dharmaraj D, Viswanathan M. Prevalence of glucose intolerance in Asian Indians. Urban-rural difference and significance of upper body adiposity. Diabetes Care 1992; 15(10): 1348-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.15.10.1348] [PMID: 1425100]
[74]
Patandin S, Bots ML, Abel R, Valkenburg HA. Impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes mellitus in a rural population in south India. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1994; 24(1): 47-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-8227(94)90085-X] [PMID: 7924886]
[75]
Zargar AH, Khan AK, Masoodi SR, et al. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in the Kashmir Valley of the Indian subcontinent. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2000; 47(2): 135-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-8227(99)00110-2] [PMID: 10670914]
[76]
Agrawal RP, Singh G, Nayak KC, et al. Prevalence of diabetes in camel-milk consuming Raica rural community of north-west Rajasthan. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 2004; 24(2): 109-14.
[77]
Deo SS, Zantye A, Rajashree M, Mithbawker S, Rane S, Thakur K. To identify the risk factors for high prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in Indian rural population. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 2006; 26(1): 19-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0973-3930.26886]
[78]
Chow CK, Raju PK, Raju R, et al. The prevalence and management of diabetes in rural India. Diabetes Care 2006; 29(7): 1717-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc06-0621] [PMID: 16801618]
[79]
Agrawal RP, Budania S, Sharma P, et al. Zero prevalence of diabetes in camel milk consuming Raica community of north-west Rajasthan, India. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007; 76(2): 290-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2006.09.036] [PMID: 17098321]
[80]
Rajput R, Rajput M, Singh J, Bairwa M. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus among the adult population in rural blocks of Haryana, India: a community-based study. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012; 10(6): 443-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/met.2012.0067] [PMID: 22947190]
[81]
Tewary K, Singh VK, Singh SK, Tiwary P, Garg A, Joshi KK. Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus in young population in rural districts of northern Bihar. J Indian Med Assoc 2013; 111(2): 103-6.
[PMID: 24003567]
[82]
Joshi R, Taksande B, Kalantri SP, Jajoo UN, Gupta R. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among rural population of elderly in Wardha district. J Cardiovasc Dis Res 2013; 4(2): 140-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcdr.2013.03.002] [PMID: 24027373]
[83]
Mahanta TG, Joshi R, Mahanta BN, Xavier D. Prevalence of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors among tea garden and general population in Dibrugarh, Assam, India. J Epidemiol Glob Health 2013; 3(3): 147-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jegh.2013.04.001] [PMID: 23932057]
[84]
Shrivastava SR, Ghorpade AG. High prevalence of type 2 diabetes melitus and its risk factors among the rural population of Pondicherry, South India. J Res Health Sci 2014; 14(4): 258-63.
[PMID: 25503279]
[85]
Negi PC, Chauhan R, Rana V. Vidyasagar, Lal K. Epidemiological study of non-communicable diseases risk factors in tribal district of Kinnaur, HP: a cross sectional study. Indian Heart J 2016; 68(5): 655-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2016.03.002] [PMID: 27773404]
[86]
Oommen AM, Abraham VJ, George K, Jose VJ. Rising trend of cardiovascular risk factors between 1991-1994 and 2010-2012: A repeat cross sectional survey in urban and rural Vellore. Indian Heart J 2016; 68(3): 263-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ihj.2015.09.014] [PMID: 27316476]
[87]
Anderson P, Grills N, Singh R, et al. Prevalence of diabetes and pre-diabetes in rural Tehri Garhwal, India: influence of diagnostic method. BMC Public Health 2019; 19(1): 817.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7184-4] [PMID: 31234815]
[88]
Agarwal A, Jindal D, Ajay VS, et al. Association between socioeconomic position and cardiovascular disease risk factors in rural north India: The Solan Surveillance Study. PLoS One 2019; 14(7): e0217834.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217834] [PMID: 31283784]
[89]
Anjana RM, Deepa M, Pradeepa R, et al. ICMR–INDIAB Collaborative Study Group. Prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes in 15 states of India: results from the ICMR-INDIAB population-based cross-sectional study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2017; 5(8): 585-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30174-2] [PMID: 28601585]
[90]
Verma NP, Mehta SP, Madhu S, Mather HM, Keen H. Prevalence of known diabetes in an urban Indian environment: the Darya Ganj diabetes survey. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986; 293(6544): 423-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.293.6544.423] [PMID: 3091141]
[91]
Ramachandran A, Jali MV, Mohan V, Snehalatha C, Viswanathan M. High prevalence of diabetes in an urban population in south India. BMJ 1988; 297(6648): 587-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.297.6648.587] [PMID: 3139221]
[92]
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Latha E, Vijay V, Viswanathan M. Rising prevalence of NIDDM in an urban population in India. Diabetologia 1997; 40(2): 232-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001250050668] [PMID: 9049486]
[93]
Shah SK, Saikia M, Barman NN, Snehalatha C, Ramachandran A. High prevalence of type 2 diabetes in urban population in north-eastern India. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries 1998; 18(2): 97-101.
[94]
Bai PV, Krishnaswami CV, Chellamariappan M. Prevalence and incidence of type-2 diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in a selected Indian urban population. J Assoc Physicians India 1999; 47(11): 1060-4.
[PMID: 10862313]
[95]
Joseph A, Kutty VR, Soman CR. High risk for coronary heart disease in Thiruvananthapuram city: a study of serum lipids and other risk factors. Indian Heart J 2000; 52(1): 29-35.
[PMID: 10820930]
[96]
Kutty VR, Soman CR, Joseph A, Pisharody R, Vijayakumar K. Type 2 diabetes in southern Kerala: variation in prevalence among geographic divisions within a region. Natl Med J India 2000; 13(6): 287-92.
[PMID: 11209482]
[97]
Singh TP, Singh AD, Singh TB. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Manipur.Diabetes Update. Guwahati: North Eastern Diabetes Society 2001; pp. 13-9.
[98]
Asha Bai PV, Murthy BN, Chellamariappan M, Gupte MD, Krishnaswami CV. Prevalence of known diabetes in Chennai City. J Assoc Physicians India 2001; 49(10): 974-81.
[PMID: 11848329]
[99]
Iyer SR, Iyer RR, Upasani SV, Baitule MN. Diabetes mellitus in Dombivli-an urban population study. J Assoc Physicians India 2001; 49(7): 713-6.
[PMID: 11573556]
[100]
Misra A, Pandey RM, Devi JR, Sharma R, Vikram NK, Khanna N. High prevalence of diabetes, obesity and dyslipidaemia in urban slum population in northern India. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25(11): 1722-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801748] [PMID: 11753596]
[101]
Mohan V, Shanthirani CS, Deepa R. Glucose intolerance (diabetes and IGT) in a selected South Indian population with special reference to family history, obesity and lifestyle factors-the Chennai Urban Population Study (CUPS 14). J Assoc Physicians India 2003; 51(10): 771-7.
[PMID: 14651136]
[102]
Gupta A, Gupta R, Sarna M, Rastogi S, Gupta VP, Kothari K. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose and insulin resistance syndrome in an urban Indian population. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2003; 61(1): 69-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0168-8227(03)00085-8] [PMID: 12849925]
[103]
Gupta R, Sarna M, Thanvi J, Rastogi P, Kaul V, Gupta VP. High prevalence of multiple coronary risk factors in Punjabi Bhatia community: Jaipur Heart Watch-3. Indian Heart J 2004; 56(6): 646-52.
[PMID: 15751521]
[104]
Mohan V. Deepa R, Somannavar S, Datta M. A simplified Indian Diabetes Risk Score for screening for undiagnosed diabetes subjects. J Assoc Physicians India 2005; 53(9): 759-63.
[PMID: 16334618]
[105]
Prabhakaran D, Shah P, Chaturvedi V, Ramakrishnan L, Manhapra A, Reddy KS. Cardiovascular risk factor prevalence among men in a large industry of northern India. Natl Med J India 2005; 18(2): 59-65.
[PMID: 15981439]
[106]
Gupta R, Kaul V, Bhagat N, et al. Trends in prevalence of coronary risk factors in an urban Indian population: Jaipur Heart Watch-4. Indian Heart J 2007; 59(4): 346-53.
[PMID: 19126941]
[107]
Prasad DS, Kabir Z, Dash AK, Das BC. Prevalence and risk factors for diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in Asian Indians: a community survey from urban eastern India. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2012; 6(2): 96-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2012.05.016] [PMID: 23153977]
[108]
Kumar P, Mallik D, Mukhopadhyay DK, Sinhababu A, Mahapatra BS, Chakrabarti P. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus, impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, and its correlates among police personnel in Bankura District of West Bengal. Indian J Public Health 2013; 57(1): 24-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-557X.111364] [PMID: 23649139]
[109]
Walia R, Bhansali A, Ravikiran M, et al. High prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in Asian Indians: a community survey - Chandigarh Urban Diabetes Study (CUDS). Indian J Med Res 2014; 139(2): 252-9.
[PMID: 24718400]
[110]
Abbas S, Goyal S, Cornelius T. Presence of diabetes mellitus in the ‘Dawoodi Bohra youth community’ in Udaipur, Rajasthan. Indian J Med Res 2014; 140(2): 302-6.
[PMID: 25297365]
[111]
Jagannathan R, Nanditha A, Sundaram S, et al. Screening among male industrial workers in India shows high prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance, undetected diabetes and cardiovascular risk clustering. J Assoc Physicians India 2014; 62(4): 312-5.
[PMID: 25327033]
[112]
Menon J, Joseph J, Thachil A, Attacheril TV, Banerjee A. Surveillance of noncommunicable diseases by community health workers in Kerala: the epidemiology of noncommunicable diseases in rural areas (ENDIRA) study. Glob Heart 2014; 9(4): 409-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gheart.2014.07.003] [PMID: 25592794]
[113]
Bhattacherjee S, Datta S, Roy JK, Chakraborty M. A cross sectional assessment of risk factors on non-communicable diseases in a sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal, India using WHO STEPS approach. J Assoc Physicians India 2015; 63(12): 34-40.
[PMID: 27666902]
[114]
Tripathy JP, Thakur JS, Jeet G, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of diabetes in a large community-based study in North India: results from a STEPS survey in Punjab, India. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2017; 9(1): 8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13098-017-0207-3] [PMID: 28127405]
[115]
Madhu SV, Sandeep G, Mishra BK, Aslam M. High prevalence of diabetes, prediabetes and obesity among residents of East Delhi - The Delhi urban diabetes survey (DUDS). Diabetes Metab Syndr 2018; 12(6): 923-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2018.05.016] [PMID: 29803508]
[116]
George CE, Norman G, Wadugodapitya A, et al. Health issues in a Bangalore slum: findings from a household survey using a mobile screening toolkit in Devarajeevanahalli. BMC Public Health 2019; 19(1): 456.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6756-7] [PMID: 31035969]
[117]
Subramani SK, Yadav D, Mishra M, Pakkirisamy U, Mathiyalagen P, Prasad G. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes and prediabetes in the Gwalior-Chambal region of central India. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16(23): 4708.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234708] [PMID: 31779187]
[118]
Thakur JS, Jeet G, Nangia R, et al. Non-communicable diseases risk factors and their determinants: A cross-sectional state-wide STEPS survey, Haryana, North India. PLoS One 2019; 14(11): e0208872.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208872] [PMID: 31774812]
[119]
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Kapur A, et al. Diabetes Epidemiology Study Group in India (DESI). High prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in India: National Urban Diabetes Survey. Diabetologia 2001; 44(9): 1094-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001250100627] [PMID: 11596662]
[120]
Sadikot SM, Nigam A, Das S, et al. DiabetesIndia. The burden of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in India using the WHO 1999 criteria: prevalence of diabetes in India study (PODIS). Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2004; 66(3): 301-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2004.04.008] [PMID: 15609460]
[121]
Reddy KS, Prabhakaran D, Chaturvedi V, et al. Methods for establishing a surveillance system for cardiovascular diseases in Indian industrial populations. Bull World Health Organ 2006; 84(6): 461-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.05.027037] [PMID: 16799730]
[122]
Gupta R, Deedwania PC, Sharma K, et al. Association of educational, occupational and socioeconomic status with cardiovascular risk factors in Asian Indians: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2012; 7(8): e44098.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044098] [PMID: 22952886]
[123]
Pandey RM, Gupta R, Misra A, et al. Determinants of urban-rural differences in cardiovascular risk factors in middle-aged women in India: a cross-sectional study. Int J Cardiol 2013; 163(2): 157-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2011.06.008] [PMID: 21880382]
[124]
Upadhyay RP, Misra P, Chellaiyan VG, et al. Burden of diabetes mellitus and prediabetes in tribal population of India: a systematic review. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2013; 102(1): 1-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.06.011] [PMID: 23876547]
[125]
Sekhri T, Kanwar RS, Wilfred R, et al. Prevalence of risk factors for coronary artery disease in an urban Indian population. BMJ Open 2014; 4(12): e005346.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005346] [PMID: 25488095]
[126]
Deepa M, Grace M, Binukumar B, et al. CARRS Surveillance Research Group. High burden of prediabetes and diabetes in three large cities in South Asia: The Center for cArdio-metabolic Risk Reduction in South Asia (CARRS) Study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2015; 110(2): 172-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2015.09.005] [PMID: 26432412]
[127]
Meshram II, Vishnu Vardhana Rao M, Sudershan Rao V, Laxmaiah A, Polasa K. Regional variation in the prevalence of overweight/obesity, hypertension and diabetes and their correlates among the adult rural population in India. Br J Nutr 2016; 115(7): 1265-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516000039] [PMID: 26867590]
[128]
Dagenais GR, Gerstein HC, Zhang X, et al. Variations in diabetes prevalence in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: results from the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological study. Diabetes Care 2016; 39(5): 780-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc15-2338] [PMID: 26965719]
[129]
Vennu V, Abdulrahman TA, Bindawas SM. The prevalence of overweight, obesity, hypertension and diabetes in India: analysis of the 2015-2016 National Family Health Survey. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019; 16(20): 3987.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16203987] [PMID: 31635366]
[130]
Geldsetzer P, Manne-Goehler J, Theilmann M, et al. Diabetes and hypertension in India: a nationally representative study of 1.3 million adults. JAMA Intern Med 2018; 178(3): 363-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.8094] [PMID: 29379964]
[131]
India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Diabetes Collaborators. The increasing burden of diabetes and variations among the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 1990-2016. Lancet Glob Health 2018; 6(12): e1352-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30387-5] [PMID: 30219315]
[132]
NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet 2016; 387(10027): 1513-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00618-8] [PMID: 27061677]
[133]
GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 2016; 388(10053): 1659-724.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31679-8] [PMID: 27733284]
[134]
Gupta R, Gupta VP, Sarna M, Prakash H, Rastogi S, Gupta KD. Serial epidemiological surveys in an urban Indian population demonstrate increasing coronary risk factors among the lower socioeconomic strata. J Assoc Physicians India 2003; 51(7): 470-7.
[PMID: 12974428]
[135]
Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C, Baskar AD, et al. Temporal changes in prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance associated with lifestyle transition occurring in the rural population in India. Diabetologia 2004; 47(5): 860-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-004-1387-6] [PMID: 15114469]
[136]
Mohan V, Deepa M, Deepa R, et al. Secular trends in the prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in urban South India-the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES-17). Diabetologia 2006; 49(6): 1175-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-006-0219-2] [PMID: 16570158]
[137]
Gupta R, Guptha S, Gupta VP, Agrawal A, Gaur K, Deedwania PC. Twenty-year trends in cardiovascular risk factors in India and influence of educational status. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2012; 19(6): 1258-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1741826711424567] [PMID: 21947630]
[138]
Prabhakaran D, Roy A, Praveen PA, et al. 20-year trend of CVD risk factors: urban and rural National Capital Region of India. Glob Heart 2017; 12(3): 209-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gheart.2016.11.004] [PMID: 28411147]
[139]
Goyal A, Kahlon P, Jain D, et al. Trend in prevalence of coronary artery disease and risk factors over two decades in rural Punjab. Heart Asia 2017; 9(27): e010938.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/heartasia-2017-010938] [PMID: 29469907]
[140]
Roth GA, Forouzanfar MH, Moran AE, et al. Demographic and epidemiologic drivers of global cardiovascular mortality. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(14): 1333-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1406656] [PMID: 25830423]
[141]
Gaziano TA, Prabhakaran D, Gaziano JM. Global burden of cardiovascular disease.Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 11th ed. New York: Elsevier 2019; pp. 1-18.
[142]
Nugent R, Bertram MY, Jan S, et al. Investing in non-communicable disease prevention and management to advance the Sustainable Development Goals. Lancet 2018; 391(10134): 2029-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30667-6] [PMID: 29627167]
[143]
Havranek EP, Mujahid MS, Barr DA, et al. American heart association council on quality of care and outcomes research, council on epidemiology and prevention, council on cardiovascular and stroke nursing, council on lifestyle and cardiometabolic health, and stroke council. social determinants of risk and outcomes for cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the american heart association. Circulation 2015; 132(9): 873-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000228] [PMID: 26240271]
[144]
Marmot M, Bell R. Social determinants and non-communicable diseases: time for integrated action. BMJ 2019; 364: l251.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l251] [PMID: 30692093]
[145]
Donkin A, Goldblatt P, Allen J, Nathanson V, Marmot M. Global action on the social determinants of health. BMJ Glob Health 2017; 3(Suppl. 1): e000603.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000603] [PMID: 29379648]
[146]
World Health Organization. Background document towards a global action plan for healthy lives and well-being for all: Shared SDG priorities and areas of Work 2018.https://www.who.int/publications-detail/stronger-collaboration-better-health-global-action- plan-for-healthy-lives-and-well-being-for-all
[147]
Wilson B. The food transition.The Way We Eat Now: How the food revolution has transformed our lives, our bodies, and our world. New York: Basic Books 2019; pp. 1-52.
[148]
Harrari YN. The scientific revolution.Sapiens: a brief history of humankind. London. Harvil Sacker 2014; pp. 247-414.
[149]
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, et al. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT-Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 2019; 393(10170): 447-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4] [PMID: 30660336]
[150]
Mozaffarian D. Dietary and policy priorities for cardiovascular disease, diabetes and obesity: a comprehensive review. Circulation 2016; 133(2): 187-225.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585] [PMID: 26746178]
[151]
Kohl HW III, Craig CL, Lambert EV, et al. Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. The pandemic of physical inactivity: global action for public health. Lancet 2012; 380(9838): 294-305.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60898-8] [PMID: 22818941]
[152]
Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, et al. ESC Scientific Document Group. 2016 European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts) developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur Heart J 2016; 37(29): 2315-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehw106] [PMID: 27222591]
[153]
Mechanick JI, Farkouh ME, Newman JD, Garvey WT. Cardiometabolic based chronic disease, addressing knowledge and clinical practice gaps. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020; 75(5): 539-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.11.046] [PMID: 32029137]