Generic placeholder image

Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry

Author(s): Ronald Bartzatt*

DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200224100730

DownloadDownload PDF Flyer Cite As
Prostate Cancer: Biology, Incidence, Detection Methods, Treatment Methods, and Vaccines

Page: [847 - 854] Pages: 8

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

Cancer of the prostate are cancers in which most incidences are slow-growing, and in the U.S., a record of 1.2 million new cases of prostate cancer occurred in 2018. The rates of this type of cancer have been increasing in developing nations. The risk factors for prostate cancer include age, family history, and obesity. It is believed that the rate of prostate cancer is correlated with the Western diet. Various advances in methods of radiotherapy have contributed to lowering morbidity. Therapy for hormone- refractory prostate cancer is making progress, for almost all men with metastases will proceed to hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Smoking cigarettes along with the presence of prostate cancer has been shown to cause a higher risk of mortality in prostate cancer. The serious outcome of incontinence and erectile dysfunction result from the cancer treatment of surgery and radiation, particularly for prostate- specific antigen detected cancers that will not cause morbidity or mortality. Families of patients, as well as patients, are profoundly affected following the diagnosis of prostate cancer. Poor communication between spouses during prostate cancer increases the risk for poor adjustment to prostate cancer. The use of serum prostate-specific antigen to screen for prostate cancer has led to a greater detection, in its early stage, of this cancer. Prostate cancer is the most common malignancy in American men, accounting for more than 29% of all diagnosed cancers and about 13% of all cancer deaths. A shortened course of hormonal therapy with docetaxel following radical prostatectomy (or radiation therapy) for high-risk prostate cancer has been shown to be both safe and feasible. Patients treated with docetaxel-estramustine had a prostate-specific antigen response decline of at least 50%. Cancer vaccines are an immune-based cancer treatment that may provide the promise of a non-toxic but efficacious therapeutic alternative for cancer patients. Further studies will elucidate improved methods of detection and treatment.

Keywords: Prostate cancer, Vaccines, Hormone-refractory, Radiation therapy, Erectile dysfunction, Mortality.

[1]
Ruddon, R.W. Cancer biology; Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2007.
[2]
Catalona, W.J. Prostate cancer screening. Med. Clin. North Am., 2018, 102(2), 199-214.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2017.11.001] [PMID: 29406053]
[3]
Grossman, D.C.; Curry, S.J.; Owens, D.K.; Bibbins-Domingo, K.; Caughey, A.B.; Davidson, K.W.; Doubeni, C.A.; Ebell, M.; Epling, J.W., Jr; Kemper, A.R.; Krist, A.H.; Kubik, M.; Landefeld, C.S.; Mangione, C.M.; Silverstein, M.; Simon, M.A.; Siu, A.L.; Tseng, C.W. US preventive services task force. screening for prostate cancer: us preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA, 2018, 319(18), 1901-1913.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.3710] [PMID: 29801017]
[4]
Stratton, J.; Godwin, M. The effect of supplemental vitamins and minerals on the development of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fam. Pract., 2011, 28(3), 243-252.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmq115] [PMID: 21273283]
[5]
Taitt, H.E. Global trends and prostrate cancer: a review of incidence, detection, and mortality as influenced by race, ethnicity, and geographical location. Am. J. Men Health, 2018, 12(6), 1807-1823.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988318798279] [PMID: 30203706]
[6]
Miller, D.C.; Hafez, K.S.; Stewart, A.; Montie, J.E.; Wei, J.T. Prostate carcinoma presentation, diagnosis, and staging: an update form the National Cancer Data Base. Cancer, 2003, 98(6), 1169-1178.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.11635] [PMID: 12973840]
[7]
Hsing, A.W.; Chokkalingam, A.P. Prostate cancer epidemiology. Front. Biosci., 2006, 11, 1388-1413.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2741/1891] [PMID: 16368524]
[8]
Zeegers, M.P.; Jellema, A.; Ostrer, H. Empiric risk of prostate carcinoma for relatives of patients with prostate carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Cancer, 2003, 97(8), 1894-1903.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.11262] [PMID: 12673715]
[9]
Calle, E.E.; Rodriguez, C.; Walker-Thurmond, K.; Thun, M.J. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N. Engl. J. Med., 2003, 348(17), 1625-1638.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021423] [PMID: 12711737]
[10]
Wigle, D.T.; Turner, M.C.; Goves, J.; Parent, M.E. Role of hormonal and other factors in human prostate cancer. 2008, J. of Toxicology and Environmental Health part B. Crit. Rev., 2008, 11(3-4), 242-259.
[11]
Leitzmann, M.F.; Platz, E.A.; Stampfer, M.J.; Willett, W.C.; Giovannucci, E. Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. JAMA, 2004, 291(13), 1578-1586.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.291.13.1578] [PMID: 15069045]
[12]
Li, J.; Wang, Z. The pathology of unusual subtypes of prostate cancer. Chin. J. Cancer Res., 2016, 28(1), 130-143.
[PMID: 27041935]
[13]
Masko, E.M.; Allott, E.H.; Freedland, S.J. The relationship between nutrition and prostate cancer: is more always better? Eur. Urol., 2013, 63(5), 810-820.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2012.11.012] [PMID: 23219353]
[14]
Jemal, A.; Bray, F.; Center, M.M.; Ferlay, J.; Ward, E.; Forman, D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2011, 61(2), 69-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.20107] [PMID: 21296855]
[15]
Bestwick, D.G.; Eble, J.N. Urological surgical pathology; Mosby: St. Louis, 2007.
[16]
Mazhar, D.; Waxman, J. Prostate cancer. Postgrad. Med. J., 2002, 78(924), 590-595.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/pmj.78.924.590] [PMID: 12415080]
[17]
Rawla, P. Epidemiology of prostate cancer. World J. Oncol., 2019, 10(2), 63-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14740/wjon1191] [PMID: 31068988]
[18]
Siegel, R.L.; Miller, K.D.; Jemal, A. Cancer statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2019, 69(1), 7-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.21551] [PMID: 30620402]
[19]
Pollack, A.; Zagars, G.K.; Rosen, I.I. Prostate cancer treatment with radiotherapy: maturing methods that minimize morbidity. Semin. Oncol., 1999, 26(2), 150-161.
[PMID: 10597726]
[20]
Liberman, D.; Mehus, B.; Elliott, S.P. Urinary adverse effects of pelvic radiotherapy. Transl. Androl. Urol., 2014, 3(2), 186-195.
[PMID: 26813159]
[21]
Wang, J.; Waxman, J. Chemotherapy for prostate cancer. Urol. Oncol., 2000, 5(3), 93-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1078-1439(99)00054-X] [PMID: 10765014]
[22]
Goktas, S.; Crawford, E.D. Optimal hormonal therapy for advanced prostatic carcinoma. Semin. Oncol., 1999, 26(2), 162-173.
[PMID: 10597727]
[23]
Foroughi Moghadam, M.J.; Taheri, S.; Peiravian, F. A systematic review of clinical practice guidelines for castration-resistant prostate cancer. Iran. J. Pharm. Res., 2018, 17(Suppl.), 17-37.
[PMID: 29796026]
[24]
Attard, G.; Merseburger, A.; Wiebki, A.; Sternberg, C.; Feyerabend, S.; Berruti, A.; Joniau, S.; Geczi, L.; Lefresne, F.; Lahaye, M.; Shelby, F.; Pissart, G.; Chua, S.; Jones, R.; Tombal, B. Assessment of the safety of glucocorticoid regimens in combination with abiraterone acetate for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. JAMA Oncol., 2019, 5(8), 1159-1167.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2019.1011]
[25]
Riviere, P.; Kumar, A.; Luterstein, E.; Vitzthum, L.K.; Nalawade, V.; Sarkar, R.R.; Bryant, A.K.; Einck, J.P.; Mundt, A.J.; Murphy, J.D.; Rose, B.S. Tobacco smoking and death from prostate cancer in US veterans. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis., 2019, 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41391-019-0178-6] [PMID: 31624316]
[26]
Magoha, G.A. Management and survival in advanced prostate cancer in Nairobi. East Afr. Med. J., 2000, 77(5), 260-263.
[PMID: 12858917]
[27]
James, L.J.; Wong, G.; Craig, J.C.; Hanson, C.S.; Ju, A.; Howard, K.; Usherwood, T.; Lau, H.; Tong, A. Men’s perspectives of prostate cancer screening: A systematic review of qualitative studies. PLoS One, 2017, 12(11), e0188258
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188258] [PMID: 29182649]
[28]
Boehmer, U.; Clark, J.A. Married couples’ perspectives on prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment decision-making. Psychooncology, 2001, 10(2), 147-155.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pon.504] [PMID: 11268141]
[29]
Rai, T.; Clements, A.; Bukach, C.; Shine, B.; Austoker, J.; Watson, E. What influences men’s decision to have a prostate-specific antigen test? A qualitative study. Fam. Pract., 2007, 24(4), 365-371.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmm033] [PMID: 17644829]
[30]
Weber, B.A.; Roberts, B.L.; McDougall, G.J., Jr Exploring the efficacy of support groups for men with prostrate cancer. Geriatr. Nurs., 2000, 21(5), 250-253.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mgn.2000.110836] [PMID: 11035307]
[31]
Lacourt, L.E. Tackle prostate cancer: a doctoral student’s response. J. Soc. Action Couns. Psychol., 2014, 6(1), 143-153.
[32]
Manne, S.L. Prostate cancer support and advocacy groups: their role for patients and family members. Semin. Urol. Oncol., 2002, 20(1), 45-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/suro.2002.30398] [PMID: 11828357]
[33]
Boehmer, U.; Clark, J.A. Communication about prostate cancer between men and their wives. J. Fam. Pract., 2001, 50(3), 226-231.
[PMID: 11252211]
[34]
Barry, M.J.; Simmons, L.H. Prevention of prostate cancer morbidity and mortality: primary prevention and early detection. Med. Clin. North Am., 2017, 101(4), 787-806.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2017.03.009] [PMID: 28577627]
[35]
Clements, A.; Watson, E.; Rai, T.; Bukach, C.; Shine, B.; Austoker, J. The PSA testing dilemma: GPs’ reports of consultations with asymptomatic men: a qualitative study. BMC Fam. Pract., 2007, 8, 35-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-8-35] [PMID: 17593306]
[36]
Little, B.; Young, M. How to use PSA to screen for prostate cancer. Int. J. Clin. Pract., 2003, 57(1), 40-42.
[PMID: 12587941]
[37]
Bonci, D.; De Maria, R. A predictive signature for therapy assignment and risk assessment in prostate cancer. Oncoscience, 2015, 2(11), 920-923.
[PMID: 26697526]
[38]
Morlando, M.; Pelullo, C.P.; Di Giuseppe, G. Prostate cancer screening: Knowledge, attitudes and practices in a sample of men in Italy. A survey. PLoS One, 2017, 12(10), e0186332
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186332] [PMID: 29023514]
[39]
Schröder, F.H. Detection of prostate cancer: the impact of the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer (ERSPC). Can. J. Urol., 2005, 12(Suppl. 1), 2-6.
[PMID: 15780157]
[40]
Kell, J.S. Prostate-specific antigen tests and prostate cancer screening: an update for primary care physicians. Can. J. Urol., 2010, 17(Suppl. 1), 18-25.
[PMID: 20170597]
[41]
Tasian, G.E.; Cooperberg, M.R.; Cowan, J.E.; Keyashian, K.; Greene, K.L.; Daniels, N.A.; Carroll, P.R.; Chan, J.M. Prostate specific antigen screening for prostate cancer: knowledge of, attitudes towards, and utilization among primary care physicians. Urol. Oncol., 2012, 30(2), 155-160.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2009.12.019] [PMID: 20800514]
[42]
Mowatt, G.; Scotland, G.; Boachie, C.; Cruickshank, M.; Ford, J.A.; Fraser, C.; Kurban, L.; Lam, T.B.; Padhani, A.R.; Royle, J.; Scheenen, T.W.; Tassie, E. The diagnostic accuracy and cost-effectiveness of magnetic resonance spectroscopy and enhanced magnetic resonance imaging techniques in aiding the localisation of prostate abnormalities for biopsy: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol. Assess., 2013, 17(20), vii-xix, 1-281.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3310/hta17200] [PMID: 23697373]
[43]
Giganti, F.; Moore, C.M. MRI in early detection of prostate cancer. Curr. Opin. Urol., 2019, 29(6), 563-568.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOU.0000000000000668] [PMID: 31436569]
[44]
Smith, R.A.; Cokkinides, V.; Brawley, O.W. Cancer screening in the United States, 2009: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2009, 59(1), 27-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.20008] [PMID: 19147867]
[45]
Smith, R.A.; Cokkinides, V.; Eyre, H.J. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2003. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2003, 53(1), 27-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.53.1.27] [PMID: 12568442]
[46]
Smith, R.A.; Cokkinides, V.; von Eschenbach, A.C.; Levin, B.; Cohen, C.; Runowicz, C.D.; Sener, S.; Saslow, D.; Eyre, H.J. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2002, 52(1), 8-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.52.1.8] [PMID: 11814067]
[47]
Tabayoyong, W.; Abouassaly, R. Prostate cancer screening and the associated controversy. Surg. Clin. North Am., 2015, 95(5), 1023-1039.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2015.05.001] [PMID: 26315521]
[48]
Moul, J.W. Population screening for prostate cancer and emerging concepts for young men. Clin. Prostate Cancer, 2003, 2(2), 87-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3816/CGC.2003.n.015] [PMID: 15040869]
[49]
Vickers, A.J.; Lilja, H. Predicting prostate cancer many years before diagnosis: how and why? World J. Urol., 2012, 30(2), 131-135.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00345-011-0795-8] [PMID: 22101902]
[50]
Pinto, Á.; Pérez Segura, P. Primary prevention and early diagnosis of prostate cancer: recommendations from the prevention and early diagnosis working group of the Spanish Society of Medical Oncology (SEOM). Eur. J. Cancer Prev., 2016, 25(2), 137-141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000149] [PMID: 25793920]
[51]
Ankerst, D.P.; Hoefler, J.; Bock, S.; Goodman, P.J.; Vickers, A.; Hernandez, J.; Sokoll, L.J.; Sanda, M.G.; Wei, J.T.; Leach, R.J.; Thompson, I.M. Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial risk calculator 2.0 for the prediction of low- vs high-grade prostate cancer. Urology, 2014, 83(6), 1362-1367.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2014.02.035] [PMID: 24862395]
[52]
Ruiz-Aragón, J.; Márquez-Peláez, S.; Luque Romero, L.G. [Erectile dysfunction in patients with prostate cancer who have undergone surgery: Systematic review of literature]. Actas Urol. Esp., 2010, 34(8), 677-685.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2173-5786(10)70169-4] [PMID: 20800031]
[53]
Hyun, J.S. Prostate cancer and sexual function. World J. Mens Health, 2012, 30(2), 99-107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5534/wjmh.2012.30.2.99] [PMID: 23596596]
[54]
Bazan, J.G.; King, C.R.; Brooks, J.D.; Srinivas, S. Adjuvant docetaxel and abbreviated androgen deprivation therapy in patients with high risk prostate cancer. Open Prostate Cancer J., 2010, 3, 99-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876822901003010099]
[55]
Holzbeierlein, J.M.; McLaughlin, M.D.; Thrasher, J.B. Complications of androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. Curr. Opin. Urol., 2004, 14(3), 177-183.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00042307-200405000-00007] [PMID: 15069309]
[56]
Sieh, W.; Lichtensztajn, D.Y.; Nelson, D.O.; Cockburn, M.; West, D.W.; Brooks, J.D.; Chang, E.T. Treatment and mortality in men with localized prostate cancer: a population based study in California. Open Prostate Cancer J., 2013, 6, 1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876822901306010001] [PMID: 23997838]
[57]
Siegel, R.; Naishadham, D.; Jemal, A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J. Clin., 2012, 62(1), 10-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3322/caac.20138] [PMID: 22237781]
[58]
Smith, M.R. Effective treatment for early-stage prostate cancer--possible, necessary, or both? N. Engl. J. Med., 2011, 364(18), 1770-1772.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1100787] [PMID: 21542749]
[59]
Lodise, O.; Patil, K.; Karshenboym, I.; Prombo, S.; Chukwueke, C.; Pai, S.B. Inhibition of prostate cancer cells by 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid through cell cycle arrest. Prostate Cancer, 2019, 20194520645
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/4520645] [PMID: 31263600]
[60]
Tammela, T. Endocrine treatment of prostate cancer. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2004, 92(4), 287-295.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2004.10.005] [PMID: 15663992]
[61]
Akaza, H.; Chodak, G.W.; Hirao, Y. [Usefulness and positioning of MAB therapy for prostate cancer]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho, 2005, 32(10), 1507-1520.
[PMID: 16227758]
[62]
Sakai, H.; Kanetake, H. [First line therapy in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer]. Gan To Kagaku Ryoho, 2003, 30(1), 43-49.
[PMID: 12557704]
[63]
Sessions, A.E.; Messing, E.M. Timing hormonal therapy in prostate cancer. Urol. Clin. North Am., 2002, 29(1), 223-227.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0094-0143(02)00007-1] [PMID: 12109348]
[64]
Mohammed, N.; Kestin, L.; Ghilezan, M.; Krauss, D.; Vicini, F.; Brabbins, D.; Gustafson, G.; Ye, H.; Martinez, A. Comparison of acute and late toxicities for three modern high-dose radiation treatment techniques for localized prostate cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 2012, 82(1), 204-212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2010.10.009] [PMID: 21167653]
[65]
Fang, F.M.; Wang, Y.M.; Wang, C.J.; Huang, H.Y.; Chiang, P.H. Comparison of the outcome and morbidity for localized or locally advanced prostate cancer treated by high-dose-rate brachytherapy plus external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) versus EBRT alone. Jpn. J. Clin. Oncol., 2008, 38(7), 474-479.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jjco/hyn056] [PMID: 18621848]
[66]
Sathya, J.R.; Davis, I.R.; Julian, J.A.; Guo, Q.; Daya, D.; Dayes, I.S.; Lukka, H.R.; Levine, M. Randomized trial comparing iridium implant plus external-beam radiation therapy alone in node-negative locally advanced cancer of the prostate. J. Clin. Oncol., 2005, 23(6), 1192-1196.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.06.154] [PMID: 15718316]
[67]
Petrylak, D.P. Future directions in the treatment of androgen-independent prostate cancer. Urology, 2005, 65(6)(Suppl.), 8-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2005.04.020] [PMID: 15939077]
[68]
Oh, W.K.; Tay, M.H.; Huang, J. Is there a role for platinum chemotherapy in the treatment of patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer? Cancer, 2007, 109(3), 477-486.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.22439] [PMID: 17186531]
[69]
Sternberg, C.N.; Whelan, P.; Hetherington, J.; Paluchowska, B.; Slee, P.H.; Vekemans, K.; Van Erps, P.; Theodore, C.; Koriakine, O.; Oliver, T.; Lebwohl, D.; Debois, M.; Zurlo, A.; Collette, L. Genitourinary Tract Group of the EORTC. Phase III trial of satraplatin, an oral platinum plus prednisone vs. prednisone alone in patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Oncology, 2005, 68(1), 2-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000084201] [PMID: 15741753]
[70]
Rhoden, E.L.; Averbeck, M.A. Testosterone therapy and prostate carcinoma. Curr. Urol. Rep., 2009, 10(6), 453-459.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11934-009-0072-1] [PMID: 19863857]
[71]
Warburton, D.; Hobaugh, C.; Wang, G.; Lin, H.; Wang, R. Testosterone replacement therapy and the risk of prostate cancer. Asian J. Androl., 2015, 17(6), 878-881.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/1008-682X.150841] [PMID: 25865848]
[72]
Litwin, M.S.; Tan, H.J. The diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. JAMA, 2017, 317(24), 2532-2542.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.7248] [PMID: 28655021]
[73]
Baxevanis, C.N.; Papamichail, M.; Perez, S.A. Prostate cancer vaccines: the long road to clinical application. Cancer Immunol. Immunother., 2015, 64(4), 401-408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00262-015-1667-7] [PMID: 25690791]
[74]
Redman, J.M.; Gulley, J.L.; Madan, R.A. Combining immunotherapies for the treatment of prostate cancer. Urol. Oncol., 2017, 35(12), 694-700.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2017.09.024] [PMID: 29146441]
[75]
Arlen, P.M.; Mohebtash, M.; Madan, R.A.; Gulley, J.L. Promising novel immunotherapies and combinations for prostate cancer. Future Oncol., 2009, 5(2), 187-196.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/14796694.5.2.187] [PMID: 19284377]
[76]
Arlen, P.M.; Gulley, J.L. Current perspectives in prostate cancer vaccines. Anticancer. Agents Med. Chem., 2009, 9(10), 1052-1057.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/187152009789735062] [PMID: 19719454]
[77]
Mohebtash, M.; Gulley, J.L.; Madan, R.A.; Ferrara, T.; Arlen, P.M. Cancer vaccines: current directions and perspectives in prostate cancer. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther., 2009, 11(1), 31-36.
[PMID: 19169957]