Generic placeholder image

Current Cardiology Reviews

Author(s): Negar Omidi, Mohammadrafie Khorgami*, Farbod Z. Tajrishi, Amirhosein Seyedhoseinpour and Parichehr Pasbakhsh

DOI: 10.2174/1573403X15666191008111238

DownloadDownload PDF Flyer Cite As
The Role of Thyroid Diseases and their Medications in Cardiovascular Disorders: A Review of the Literature

Page: [103 - 116] Pages: 14

  • * (Excluding Mailing and Handling)

Abstract

The association between thyroid disease and cardiovascular manifestations is significant and undeniable. Previous studies have explained several aspects of the effects of thyroid hormone on the heart and cardiovascular system. Accordingly, both hyper and hypothyroidism can cause important alterations in cardiac rhythm, output and contractility as well as vascular resistance and blood pressure. Since treating the thyroid abnormality, especially in its initial stages, could lead to a significant improvement in most of its resultant cardiovascular disturbances, early suspicion and recognition of thyroid dysfunction, is necessary in patients with cardiovascular manifestations. In this in-depth review, we discuss the physiological roles as well as the effects of abnormal levels of thyroid hormones on the cardiovascular system. We also review the effects of the medications used for the treatment of hyper and hypothyroidism on cardiac function. In the end, we discuss the association between thyroid function and amiodarone, an effective and frequently-used antiarrhythmic drug, because of its well-known effects on the thyroid.

Keywords: Hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, heart, amiodarone, myocardium, thyroid disease.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
2019.American Thyroid Association Available from: https://www.thyroid.org/media-main/press-room/
[2]
2018. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes
[3]
2018.American Diabetes Association Available from: https://www.diabetes.org/resources/statistics/statistics-about-diabetes
[4]
Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, et al. The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: The Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1977; 7(6): 481-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1977.tb01340.x] [PMID: 598014]
[5]
Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160(4): 526-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.4.526] [PMID: 10695693]
[6]
Jung CH, Sung KC, Shin HS, et al. Thyroid dysfunction and their relation to cardiovascular risk factors such as lipid profile, hsCRP, and waist hip ratio in Korea. Korean J Intern Med (Korean Assoc Intern Med) 2003; 18(3): 146-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2003.18.3.146] [PMID: 14619383]
[7]
Klein I, Ojamaa K. Thyroid hormone and the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(7): 501-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200102153440707] [PMID: 11172193]
[8]
Fadel BM, Ellahham S, Ringel MD, Lindsay J Jr, Wartofsky L, Burman KD. Hyperthyroid heart disease. Clin Cardiol 2000; 23(6): 402-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960230605] [PMID: 10875028]
[9]
Biondi B, Fazio S, Coltorti F, et al. Clinical case seminar: Reentrant atrioventricular nodal tachycardia induced by levothyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83(8): 2643-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jcem.83.8.5000] [PMID: 9709925]
[10]
Renaudon B, Lenfant J, Decressac S, Bois P. Thyroid hormone increases the conductance density of f-channels in rabbit sino-atrial node cells. Receptors Channels 2000; 7(1): 1-8.
[PMID: 10800771]
[11]
Freedberg AS, Papp JG, Williams EM. The effect of altered thyroid state on atrial intracellular potentials. J Physiol 1970; 207(2): 357-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1970.sp009066] [PMID: 5499024]
[12]
von Olshausen K, Bischoff S, Kahaly G, et al. Cardiac arrhythmias and heart rate in hyperthyroidism. Am J Cardiol 1989; 63(13): 930-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(89)90142-2] [PMID: 2929466]
[13]
Lilly LS, Braunwald E. Endocrine disorders and cardiovascular disease.Braunwald’s heart disease: A textbook of cardiovascular medicine. In: Elsevier Health Sciences. 2012; p. p. 1829..
[14]
Klein I, Danzi S. Thyroid disease and the heart. Circulation 2007; 116(15): 1725-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678326] [PMID: 17923583]
[15]
Ventrella SM, Klein I. Beta-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs in the management of hyperthyroidism. Endocrinologist 1994; 4(5): 391-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00019616-199409000-00010]
[16]
Frost L, Vestergaard P, Mosekilde L. Hyperthyroidism and risk of atrial fibrillation or flutter: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164(15): 1675-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.15.1675] [PMID: 15302638]
[17]
Kahaly GJ, Nieswandt J, Mohr-Kahaly S. Cardiac risks of hyperthyroidism in the elderly. Thyroid 1998; 8(12): 1165-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.1998.8.1165] [PMID: 9920373]
[18]
Rønnov-Jessen V, Kirkegaard C. Hyperthyroidism--a disease of old age? BMJ 1973; 1(5844): 41-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5844.41] [PMID: 4119074]
[19]
Kahaly GJ, Dillmann WH. Thyroid hormone action in the heart. Endocr Rev 2005; 26(5): 704-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2003-0033] [PMID: 15632316]
[20]
Auer J, Scheibner P, Mische T, Langsteger W, Eber O, Eber B. Subclinical hyperthyroidism as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J 2001; 142(5): 838-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mhj.2001.119370] [PMID: 11685172]
[21]
Tribulova N, Knezl V, Shainberg A, Seki S, Soukup T. Thyroid hormones and cardiac arrhythmias. Vascul Pharmacol 2010; 52(3-4): 102-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vph.2009.10.001] [PMID: 19850152]
[22]
Haïssaguerre M, Jaïs P, Shah DC, et al. Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med 1998; 339(10): 659-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199809033391003] [PMID: 9725923]
[23]
Kreuzberg U, Theissen P, Schicha H, et al. Single-channel activity and expression of atrial L-type Ca(2+) channels in patients with latent hyperthyroidism. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000; 278(3): H723-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.2000.278.3.H723] [PMID: 10710339]
[24]
Kostin S, Klein G, Szalay Z, Hein S, Bauer EP, Schaper J. Structural correlate of atrial fibrillation in human patients. Cardiovasc Res 2002; 54(2): 361-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6363(02)00273-0] [PMID: 12062341]
[25]
Agner T, Almdal T, Thorsteinsson B, Agner E. A reevaluation of atrial fibrillation in thyrotoxicosis. Dan Med Bull 1984; 31(2): 157-9.
[PMID: 6723378]
[26]
Mohácsi A, Wórum F, Lörincz I, Nagy E, Leövey A. Incidence of rhythm disorders in hyperthyrosis with special respect of old age form. Acta Med Hung 1990; 47: 21-9.
[PMID: 2280992]
[27]
Haider AW, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Levy D. Increased left ventricular mass and hypertrophy are associated with increased risk for sudden death. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32(5): 1454-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(98)00407-0] [PMID: 9809962]
[28]
Wann LS, Curtis AB, January CT, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA/HRS focused update on the management of patients with atrial fibrillation (Updating the 2006 Guideline): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Heart Rhythm 2011; 8(1): 157-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrthm.2010.11.047] [PMID: 21182985]
[29]
Shimizu T, Koide S, Noh JY, Sugino K, Ito K, Nakazawa H. Hyperthyroidism and the management of atrial fibrillation. Thyroid 2002; 12(6): 489-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/105072502760143863] [PMID: 12165111]
[30]
Colzani RM, Emdin M, Conforti F, Passino C, Scarlattini M, Iervasi G. Hyperthyroidism is associated with lengthening of ventricular repolarization. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2001; 55(1): 27-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2265.2001.01295.x] [PMID: 11453949]
[31]
Jaeger JM, Houser SR, Freeman AR, Spann JF Jr. Effect of thyroid hormone on canine cardiac Purkinje fiber transmembrane potential. Am J Physiol 1981; 240(6): H934-40.
[PMID: 7246755]
[32]
Yen PM, Ando S, Feng X, Liu Y, Maruvada P, Xia X. Thyroid hormone action at the cellular, genomic and target gene levels. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2006; 246(1-2): 121-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2005.11.030] [PMID: 16442701]
[33]
Davis PJ, Davis FB. Nongenomic actions of thyroid hormone. Thyroid 1996; 6(5): 497-504.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.1996.6.497] [PMID: 8936679]
[34]
Tsika RW, Bahl JJ, Leinwand LA, Morkin E. Thyroid hormone regulates expression of a transfected human alpha-myosin heavy-chain fusion gene in fetal rat heart cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87(1): 379-83.
[35]
Averyhart-Fullard V, Fraker LD, Murphy AM, Solaro RJ. Differential regulation of slow-skeletal and cardiac troponin I mRNA during development and by thyroid hormone in rat heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1994; 26(5): 609-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jmcc.1994.1073] [PMID: 8072015]
[36]
Reed TD, Babu GJ, Ji Y, et al. The expression of SR calcium transport ATPase and the Na(+)/Ca(2+)Exchanger are antithetically regulated during mouse cardiac development and in Hypo/hyperthyroidism. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2000; 32(3): 453-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jmcc.1999.1095] [PMID: 10731444]
[37]
Kiss E, Jakab G, Kranias EG, Edes I. Thyroid hormone-induced alterations in phospholamban protein expression. Regulatory effects on sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ transport and myocardial relaxation. Circ Res 1994; 75(2): 245-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.75.2.245] [PMID: 8033338]
[38]
Gick GG, Melikian J, Ismail-Beigi F. Thyroidal enhancement of rat myocardial Na,K-ATPase: preferential expression of α 2 activity and mRNA abundance. J Membr Biol 1990; 115(3): 273-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01868642] [PMID: 2165172]
[39]
Vargas F, Moreno JM, Rodríguez-Gómez I, et al. Vascular and renal function in experimental thyroid disorders. Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 154(2): 197-212.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.1.02093] [PMID: 16452532]
[40]
Pantos C, Mourouzis I, Xinaris C, Cokkinos DV. Thyroid hormone and myocardial ischaemia. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 109(3-5): 314-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2008.03.011] [PMID: 18430565]
[41]
Cokkinos DV, Pantos C, Heusch G, Taegtmeyer H, Eds. Myocardial ischemia: from mechanisms to therapeutic potentials. Springer Science & Business Media Vol. 21 2006..
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28658-6]
[42]
Pantos C, Xinaris C, Mourouzis I, Malliopoulou V, Kardami E, Cokkinos DV. Thyroid hormone changes cardiomyocyte shape and geometry via ERK signaling pathway: potential therapeutic implications in reversing cardiac remodeling? Mol Cell Biochem 2007; 297(1-2): 65-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11010-006-9323-3] [PMID: 17024559]
[43]
Aggarwal S, Papani R, Gupta V. Can thyroid break your heart? Role of thyroid in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: A single center retrospective study. Int J Cardiol 2015; 184: 545-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.02.058] [PMID: 25767013]
[44]
Grais IM, Sowers JR. Thyroid and the heart. Am J Med 2014; 127(8): 691-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.03.009] [PMID: 24662620]
[45]
Tomanek RJ, Doty MK, Sandra A. Early coronary angiogenesis in response to thyroxine: growth characteristics and upregulation of basic fibroblast growth factor. Circ Res 1998; 82(5): 587-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.82.5.587] [PMID: 9529163]
[46]
Pantos C, Malliopoulou V, Varonos DD, Cokkinos DV. Thyroid hormone and phenotypes of cardioprotection. Basic Res Cardiol 2004; 99(2): 101-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00395-003-0449-0] [PMID: 14963669]
[47]
Moruzzi P, Doria E, Agostoni PG, Capacchione V, Sganzerla P. Usefulness of L-thyroxine to improve cardiac and exercise performance in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73(5): 374-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(94)90011-6] [PMID: 8109552]
[48]
Ranasinghe AM, Quinn DW, Pagano D, et al. Glucose-insulin-potassium and tri-iodothyronine individually improve hemodynamic performance and are associated with reduced troponin I release after on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting. Circulation 2006; 114(1): I245-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.000786] [PMID: 16820580]
[49]
Hu LW, Benvenuti LA, Liberti EA, Carneiro-Ramos MS, Barreto-Chaves ML. Thyroxine-induced cardiac hypertrophy: influence of adrenergic nervous system vs. renin-angiotensin system on myocyte remodeling. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 285(6): R1473-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00269.2003] [PMID: 12933361]
[50]
Hall P, Lundell G, Holm L-E. Mortality in patients treated for hyperthyroidism with iodine-131. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1993; 128(3): 230-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/acta.0.1280230] [PMID: 8480472]
[51]
Mitchell JE, Hellkamp AS, Mark DB, et al. Thyroid function in heart failure and impact on mortality. JACC Heart Fail 2013; 1(1): 48-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2012.10.004] [PMID: 24159562]
[52]
Alevizaki M, Synetou M, Xynos K, Pappa T, Vemmos KN. Low triiodothyronine: a strong predictor of outcome in acute stroke patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2007; 37(8): 651-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2362.2007.01839.x] [PMID: 17635576]
[53]
Friberg L, Werner S, Eggertsen G, Ahnve S. Rapid down-regulation of thyroid hormones in acute myocardial infarction: is it cardioprotective in patients with angina? Arch Intern Med 2002; 162(12): 1388-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.162.12.1388] [PMID: 12076238]
[54]
Pimentel RC, Cardoso GP, Escosteguy CC, Abreu LM. Thyroid hormone profile in acute coronary syndromes. Arq Bras Cardiol 2006; 87(6): 688-94.
[PMID: 17262104]
[55]
Pavlou HN, Kliridis PA, Panagiotopoulos AA, Goritsas CP, Vassilakos PJ. Euthyroid sick syndrome in acute ischemic syndromes. Angiology 2002; 53(6): 699-707.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000331970205300611] [PMID: 12463624]
[56]
Friberg L, Drvota V, Bjelak AH, Eggertsen G, Ahnve S. Association between increased levels of reverse triiodothyronine and mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Med 2001; 111(9): 699-703.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00980-9] [PMID: 11747849]
[57]
Abdulaziz Qari F. Thyroid hormone profile in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Iran Red Crescent Med J 2015; 17(7): e26919
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5812/ircmj.26919v2] [PMID: 26421178]
[58]
Kimura T, Kanda T, Kotajima N, Kuwabara A, Fukumura Y, Kobayashi I. Involvement of circulating interleukin-6 and its receptor in the development of euthyroid sick syndrome in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Eur J Endocrinol 2000; 143(2): 179-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1430179] [PMID: 10913935]
[59]
Brozaitiene J, Mickuviene N, Podlipskyte A, Burkauskas J, Bunevicius R. Relationship and prognostic importance of thyroid hormone and N-terminal pro-B-Type natriuretic peptide for patients after acute coronary syndromes: a longitudinal observational study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2016; 16(1): 45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12872-016-0226-2] [PMID: 26892923]
[60]
Wang WY, Tang YD, Yang M, et al. Free triiodothyronine level indicates the degree of myocardial injury in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Chin Med J (Engl) 2013; 126(20): 3926-9.
[PMID: 24157158]
[61]
Zhang B, Peng W, Wang C, Li W, Xu Y. A low fT3 level as a prognostic marker in patients with acute myocardial infarctions. Intern Med 2012; 51(21): 3009-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.51.7902] [PMID: 23124142]
[62]
Lamprou V, Varvarousis D, Polytarchou K, Varvarousi G, Xanthos T. The role of thyroid hormones in acute coronary syndromes: Prognostic value of alterations in thyroid hormones. Clin Cardiol 2017; 40(8): 528-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/clc.22689] [PMID: 28295435]
[63]
Hak AE, Pols HA, Visser TJ, Drexhage HA, Hofman A, Witteman JC. Subclinical hypothyroidism is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women: the Rotterdam Study. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132(4): 270-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-132-4-200002150-00004] [PMID: 10681281]
[64]
Cappola AR, Ladenson PW. Hypothyroidism and atherosclerosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(6): 2438-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030398] [PMID: 12788839]
[65]
Zhang Y, Kim BK, Chang Y, et al. Thyroid hormones and coronary artery calcification in euthyroid men and women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2014; 34(9): 2128-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.303889] [PMID: 25060795]
[66]
Auer J, Berent R, Weber T, Lassnig E, Eber B. Thyroid function is associated with presence and severity of coronary atherosclerosis. Clin Cardiol 2003; 26(12): 569-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960261205] [PMID: 14677810]
[67]
Ling Y, Jiang J, Gui M, et al. Thyroid function, prevalent coronary heart disease, and severity of coronary atherosclerosis in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Int J Endocrinol 2015; 2015708272
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/708272] [PMID: 26770196]
[68]
Perk M, O’Neill BJ. The effect of thyroid hormone therapy on angiographic coronary artery disease progression. Can J Cardiol 1997; 13(3): 273-6.
[PMID: 9117915]
[69]
Ichiki T. Thyroid hormone and vascular remodeling. J Atheroscler Thromb 2016; 23(3): 266-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5551/jat.32755] [PMID: 26558400]
[70]
Makino A, Suarez J, Wang H, Belke DD, Scott BT, Dillmann WH. Thyroid hormone receptor-beta is associated with coronary angiogenesis during pathological cardiac hypertrophy. Endocrinology 2009; 150(4): 2008-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2008-0634] [PMID: 19074585]
[71]
Lin HY, Sun M, Tang HY, et al. L-Thyroxine vs. 3,5,3′-triiodo-L-thyronine and cell proliferation: activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2009; 296(5): C980-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00305.2008] [PMID: 19158403]
[72]
Carrillo-Sepúlveda MA, Ceravolo GS, Fortes ZB, et al. Thyroid hormone stimulates NO production via activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway in vascular myocytes. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 85(3): 560-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvp304] [PMID: 19734167]
[73]
Taddei S, Caraccio N, Virdis A, et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in subclinical hypothyroidism: beneficial effect of levothyroxine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(8): 3731-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030039] [PMID: 12915662]
[74]
Carneiro-Ramos MS, Silva VB, Santos RA, Barreto-Chaves ML. Tissue-specific modulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in hyperthyroidism. Peptides 2006; 27(11): 2942-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2006.04.015] [PMID: 16730861]
[75]
Kaminski G, Makowski K, Michałkiewicz D, et al. The influence of subclinical hyperthyroidism on blood pressure, heart rate variability, and prevalence of arrhythmias. Thyroid 2012; 22(5): 454-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.2010.0333] [PMID: 22510014]
[76]
Choi YH, Chung JH, Bae SW, et al. Severe coronary artery spasm can be associated with hyperthyroidism. Coron Artery Dis 2005; 16(3): 135-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00019501-200505000-00001] [PMID: 15818081]
[77]
Palmieri EA, Fazio S, Lombardi G, Biondi B. Subclinical hypothyroidism and cardiovascular risk: a reason to treat? Treat Endocrinol 2004; 3(4): 233-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00024677-200403040-00005] [PMID: 16026106]
[78]
Grais IM. Bedside skills: a 50-year personal retrospective. Tex Heart Inst J 2010; 37(6): 629-32.
[PMID: 21224929]
[79]
Kim EJ, Lyass A, Wang N, et al. Relation of hypothyroidism and incident atrial fibrillation (from the Framingham Heart Study). Am Heart J 2014; 167(1): 123-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2013.10.012] [PMID: 24332151]
[80]
Chess-Williams R, Coker SJ. Ventricular fibrillation is reduced in hypothyroid rats with enhanced myocardial alpha-adrenoceptor responsiveness. Br J Pharmacol 1989; 98(1): 95-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.1989.tb16867.x] [PMID: 2553194]
[81]
Liu P, Fei L, Wu W, Li J, Wang J, Zhang X. Effects of hypothyroidism on the vulnerability to ventricular fibrillation in dogs: a comparative study with amiodarone. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1996; 10(3): 369-78.
[PMID: 8877081]
[82]
Venkatesh N, Lynch JJ, Uprichard AC, Kitzen JM, Singh BN, Lucchesi BR. Hypothyroidism renders protection against lethal ventricular arrhythmias in a conscious canine model of sudden death. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1991; 18(5): 703-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005344-199111000-00008] [PMID: 1723767]
[83]
Fredlund BO, Olsson SB. Long QT interval and ventricular tachycardia of “torsade de pointe” type in hypothyroidism. Acta Med Scand 1983; 213(3): 231-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1983.tb03724.x] [PMID: 6133415]
[84]
Graettinger JS, Muenster JJ, Checchia CS, Grissom RL, Campbell JA. A correlation of clinical and hemodynamic studies in patients with hypothyroidism. J Clin Invest 1958; 37(4): 502-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI103631] [PMID: 13539188]
[85]
Iervasi G, Pingitore A, Landi P, et al. Low-T3 syndrome: a strong prognostic predictor of death in patients with heart disease. Circulation 2003; 107(5): 708-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000048124.64204.3F] [PMID: 12578873]
[86]
Rodondi N, Bauer DC, Cappola AR, et al. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction, cardiac function, and the risk of heart failure. The Cardiovascular Health study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52(14): 1152-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.07.009] [PMID: 18804743]
[87]
Jabbar A, Pingitore A, Pearce SH, Zaman A, Iervasi G, Razvi S. Thyroid hormones and cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Cardiol 2017; 14(1): 39-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2016.174] [PMID: 27811932]
[88]
Vanhaelst L, Neve P, Chailly P, Bastenie PA. Coronary-artery disease in hypothyroidism. Observations in clinical myxoedema. Lancet 1967; 2(7520): 800-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(67)92235-0] [PMID: 4167274]
[89]
Steinberg AD. Myxedema and coronary artery disease--a comparative autopsy study. Ann Intern Med 1968; 68(2): 338-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-68-2-338] [PMID: 5713917]
[90]
O’Leary DH, Polak JF. Intima-media thickness: a tool for atherosclerosis imaging and event prediction. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90(10C): 18L-21L.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9149(02)02957-0] [PMID: 12459422]
[91]
Nagasaki T, Inaba M, Henmi Y, et al. Decrease in carotid intima-media thickness in hypothyroid patients after normalization of thyroid function. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 59(5): 607-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2265.2003.01893.x] [PMID: 14616885]
[92]
Wang M, Li W, Chang GQ, et al. MicroRNA-21 regulates vascular smooth muscle cell function via targeting tropomyosin 1 in arteriosclerosis obliterans of lower extremities. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2011; 31(9): 2044-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.111.229559] [PMID: 21817107]
[93]
Zhang X, Shao S, Geng H, et al. Expression profiles of six circulating microRNAs critical to atherosclerosis in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: a clinical study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99(5): E766-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-1629] [PMID: 24517143]
[94]
Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Alevizaki M, et al. Flow-mediated, endothelium-dependent vasodilation is impaired in subjects with hypothyroidism, borderline hypothyroidism, and high-normal serum thyrotropin (TSH) values. Thyroid 1997; 7(3): 411-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.1997.7.411] [PMID: 9226212]
[95]
Papaioannou GI, Lagasse M, Mather JF, Thompson PD. Treating hypothyroidism improves endothelial function. Metabolism 2004; 53(3): 278-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2003.10.003] [PMID: 15015136]
[96]
Catargi B, Parrot-Roulaud F, Cochet C, Ducassou D, Roger P, Tabarin A. Homocysteine, hypothyroidism, and effect of thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid 1999; 9(12): 1163-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.1999.9.1163] [PMID: 10646653]
[97]
Welch GN, Loscalzo J. Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 338(15): 1042-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199804093381507] [PMID: 9535670]
[98]
Zhou Y, Chen Y, Cao X, Liu C, Xie Y. Association between plasma homocysteine status and hypothyroidism: a meta-analysis. Int J Clin Exp Med 2014; 7(11): 4544-53.
[PMID: 25550985]
[99]
Christ-Crain M, Meier C, Guglielmetti M, et al. Elevated C-reactive protein and homocysteine values: cardiovascular risk factors in hypothyroidism? A cross-sectional and a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Atherosclerosis 2003; 166(2): 379-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9150(02)00372-6] [PMID: 12535752]
[100]
Guthikonda S, Haynes WG. Homocysteine: role and implications in atherosclerosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2006; 8(2): 100-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-006-0046-4] [PMID: 16510043]
[101]
Toruner F, Altinova AE, Karakoc A, et al. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Adv Ther 2008; 25(5): 430-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12325-008-0053-7] [PMID: 18484201]
[102]
Ridker PM. C-reactive protein and the prediction of cardiovascular events among those at intermediate risk: moving an inflammatory hypothesis toward consensus. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49(21): 2129-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2007.02.052] [PMID: 17531663]
[103]
Fommei E, Iervasi G. The role of thyroid hormone in blood pressure homeostasis: evidence from short-term hypothyroidism in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(5): 1996-2000.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jcem.87.5.8464] [PMID: 11994331]
[104]
Gumieniak O, Perlstein TS, Hopkins PN, et al. Thyroid function and blood pressure homeostasis in euthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89(7): 3455-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-032143] [PMID: 15240631]
[105]
Obuobie K, Smith J, Evans LM, John R, Davies JS, Lazarus JH. Increased central arterial stiffness in hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87(10): 4662-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-020493] [PMID: 12364455]
[106]
Nagasaki T, Inaba M, Kumeda Y, et al. Increased pulse wave velocity in subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91(1): 154-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-1342] [PMID: 16234303]
[107]
Althausen T, Stockholm M. Influence of the thyroid gland on absorption in the digestive tract. Am J Physiol Legacy Cont 1938; 123(3): 577-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1938.123.3.577]
[108]
Pearce SH, Brabant G, Duntas LH, et al. 2013 ETA Guideline: Management of Subclinical Hypothyroidism. Eur Thyroid J 2013; 2(4): 215-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000356507] [PMID: 24783053]
[109]
Thompson GR, Soutar AK, Spengel FA, Jadhav A, Gavigan SJ, Myant NB. Defects of receptor-mediated low density lipoprotein catabolism in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia and hypothyroidism in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78(4): 2591-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.78.4.2591] [PMID: 6264482]
[110]
O’Brien T, Dinneen SF, O’Brien PC, Palumbo PJ. Hyperlipidemia in patients with primary and secondary hypothyroidism. Mayo Clin Proc 1993; 68(9): 860-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0025-6196(12)60694-6] [PMID: 8371604]
[111]
Diekman T, Lansberg PJ, Kastelein JJ, Wiersinga WM. Prevalence and correction of hypothyroidism in a large cohort of patients referred for dyslipidemia. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155(14): 1490-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1995.00430140052004] [PMID: 7605150]
[112]
Tognini S, Polini A, Pasqualetti G, et al. Age and gender substantially influence the relationship between thyroid status and the lipoprotein profile: results from a large cross-sectional study. Thyroid 2012; 22(11): 1096-103.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.2012.0013] [PMID: 23050788]
[113]
Liu XL, He S, Zhang SF, et al. Alteration of lipid profile in subclinical hypothyroidism: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Monit 2014; 20: 1432-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12659/MSM.891163] [PMID: 25124461]
[114]
Danese MD, Ladenson PW, Meinert CL, Powe NR. Clinical review 115: effect of thyroxine therapy on serum lipoproteins in patients with mild thyroid failure: a quantitative review of the literature. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85(9): 2993-3001.
[PMID: 10999775]
[115]
Cooper DS, Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet 2012; 379(9821): 1142-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60276-6] [PMID: 22273398]
[116]
Rodondi N, den Elzen WP, Bauer DC, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. JAMA 2010; 304(12): 1365-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.1361] [PMID: 20858880]
[117]
Singh S, Duggal J, Molnar J, Maldonado F, Barsano CP, Arora R. Impact of subclinical thyroid disorders on coronary heart disease, cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2008; 125(1): 41-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.02.027] [PMID: 17434631]
[118]
Flynn RW, Macdonald TM, Jung RT, Morris AD, Leese GP. Mortality and vascular outcomes in patients treated for thyroid dysfunction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91(6): 2159-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-1833] [PMID: 16537678]
[119]
Keating FR Jr, Parkin TW, Selby JB, Dickinson LS. Treatment of heart disease associated with myxedema. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1961; 3: 364-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0033-0620(61)90004-4] [PMID: 13752096]
[120]
Razvi S, Weaver JU, Vanderpump MP, Pearce SH. The incidence of ischemic heart disease and mortality in people with subclinical hypothyroidism: reanalysis of the Whickham Survey cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95(4): 1734-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2009-1749] [PMID: 20150579]
[121]
Fadeyev VV, Sytch J, Kalashnikov V, Rojtman A, Syrkin A, Melnichenko G. Levothyroxine replacement therapy in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism and coronary artery disease. Endocr Pract 2006; 12(1): 5-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4158/EP.12.1.5] [PMID: 16524858]
[122]
Martins RM, Fonseca RH, Duarte MM, et al. Impact of subclinical hypothyroidism treatment in systolic and diastolic cardiac function. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 2011; 55(7): 460-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0004-27302011000700005] [PMID: 22147094]
[123]
Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med 2005; 352(9): 905-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra042972] [PMID: 15745981]
[124]
Gorman CA. Radioiodine and pregnancy. Thyroid 1999; 9(7): 721-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.1999.9.721] [PMID: 10447020]
[125]
Besançon A, Beltrand J, Le Gac I, Luton D, Polak M. Management of neonates born to women with Graves’ disease: a cohort study. Eur J Endocrinol 2014; 170(6): 855-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-13-0994] [PMID: 24670885]
[126]
Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, Laurberg P. Severity of birth defects after propylthiouracil exposure in early pregnancy. Thyroid 2014; 24(10): 1533-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.2014.0150] [PMID: 24963758]
[127]
Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. American thyroid association; american association of clinical endocrinologists. . Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid 2011; 21(6): 593-646.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/thy.2010.0417] [PMID: 21510801]
[128]
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Tomisti L, et al. Glucocorticoid response in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis resulting from destructive thyroiditis is predicted by thyroid volume and serum free thyroid hormone concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92(2): 556-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-2059] [PMID: 17148557]
[129]
Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Martino E. Approach to the patient with amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95(6): 2529-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-0180] [PMID: 20525904]
[130]
Harjai KJ, Licata AA. Effects of amiodarone on thyroid function. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126(1): 63-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-126-1-199701010-00009] [PMID: 8992925]
[131]
Amico JA, Richardson V, Alpert B, Klein I. Clinical and chemical assessment of thyroid function during therapy with amiodarone. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144(3): 487-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1984.00350150071023] [PMID: 6703817]
[132]
Martino E, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE. The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid. Endocr Rev 2001; 22(2): 240-54.
[PMID: 11294826]
[133]
Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Grasso L, Bogazzi F, Burelli A, Martino E. Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, a difficult challenge: results of a prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81(8): 2930-3.
[PMID: 8768854]
[134]
Osuna PM, Udovcic M, Sharma MD. Hyperthyroidism and the Heart. Methodist DeBakey Cardiovasc J 2017; 13(2): 60-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14797/mdcj-13-2-60] [PMID: 28740583]
[135]
Diehl LA, Romaldini JH, Graf H, et al. Management of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis in Latin America: an electronic survey. Clin Endocrinol 2006; 65(4): 433-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2006.02590.x] [PMID: 16984234]